The Death of the Moth, shows how the moth resembles virginias life

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The moth is a little part of life but is a big part of Virginia's life. A moth might just be a little creature flying around in a window-pane to you but to Virginia, it symbolically represents her life. In the essay " The Death of The Moth", by Virginia Woolf she symbolically represents how this moth she is watching resembles herself.

The moth in the beginning is very energetic and seems pleasured by just flying around in the window. As the time goes on, as she sits and watches the hay-colored moth, it seems to get tired. "He was trying to resume his dancing, but seemed either so stiff or so awkward that he could only flutter to the bottom of the window-pane; and when he tried to fly across it he failed." As more time passed on the moth shows less of a sign of life. It seems everything disappeared from its life and it had no reason to live.

In the start of this essay the moth is very lively and when he is like this the outside or the rest of the world is lively as well. The day was described as pleasant, mild and benignant. The ploughs were scoring the fields and the rooks were soaring around the tree tops. Then when he is dying and eventually dead the rest of the world is also in a state of deadness. "Stillness and quiet had replaced the previous animation." the horses stood still and the birds had left to go feed in the brooks.

This is all symbolic for the author's life. At one time in her life she had fun, was happy and was always around people doing things being noticed. Which links to the activity going on outside in the beginning of the essay and her noticing the moth. Then as her life goes on it becomes dull and lonely. Which is what happened to the moth it goes from a state of bliss to death, and from this change in the moth's life, the life around it also starts to slow down. So as she got older her life became useless and the people around her seemed to no longer be involved in her life, bringing her to her suicidal death.

So in the end she is comparing herself to the moth in which the life around both of them was both dull and lifeless and that's why Virginia and the moth both came across their own deaths. Her life was strange before her death along with the moth, "Just as life had been strange a few minutes before, so death was now as strange."

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Cloning Human Beings

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Cloning Human Beings

The cloning of human beings has been an issue that many people believe strongly in. The cloning of animals such as cows and sheep have already been successful, and many people think that the cloning of human beings is just the next step. This, however, has not gone over well with the government of the United States. Recently, a hearing has been underway to decide whether cloning should be legal in the United States. In fact, President George W. Bush has said that he will do everything possible to ban human cloning. The issue here should not be whether human cloning should be legal, because it should. The government should instead implement rules and regulations to regulate and police cloning research and development. Cloning is not a horrible science experiment, but a monumental scientific development.

Many people look upon the idea of human cloning with fear and disdain. Many do not realize that the cloning of human beings could be beneficial to the human race. Many researchers involved in cloning experiments believe that cloning could offer a way for infertile couples and other couples a way to reproduce, when they otherwise could not. Cloning could offer the gift of life to those who might not be able to obtain it by other means. No one is saying that this would be the best way to reproduce, but it could be a valid option to those who wish. Another case in which human cloning may be acceptable could involve a child who needed an organ such as a kidney, or bone-marrow transplant. If cloning were an option, the parents could choose to clone the child in order to produce another who could donate whatever is needed. This is a possible option and does not mean that it would be an actual implication of cloning.

Human cloning also offers a possibility that until very recently seemed very far fetched. Cloning offers the possibility of allowing those who are dead, in a sense, be born again. In fact, many people believe that this may be the best way human cloning technology could be used. Families could bring back a dead family member or relative. This idea already appeals to many families who have invested money and time into this new possibility. One couple who lost their baby in a botched surgery, has already donated $00,000 to the Clonaid company in order to clone their dead baby. This is not the only case; many families are saving the cells of their dead family members in hopes that one day that may be able to see them once again.

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There is also an aspect which may stand as middle-ground between the two oppositions. Though people may think that human cloning is wrong, many scientists believe that human cloning research should continue because scientists might be able to develop new treatments for diseases based on cloning techniques. For instance, Dr. Harold Varmus, head of the National Institute of Health, states that cloning research might be able to help cure diseases and save lives. Researchers do not have to necessarily clone humans, but could instead use the new developments and techniques to help those already alive.

The implications of cloning technology have sparked the debate. Many question the moral and ethical aspects of cloning. Many ask if it is ethical to bring a child in to this world to replace someone else. This the same question of whether it is right to have another baby after one has died. No one is say that the childs sole purpose is to replace some one else; the child is brought into the world to be loved. There also have been defects in animal clones and some wonder if the weight of a human life is less that that of a science experiment. Life is precious and defects could occur, that is precisely the reason the government should regulate and monitor all cloning research and development. With regulations perhaps cloning experiments may not be as harmful, and safety measures and precautions can be taken before any experimentation could be done on humans. This would also ensure that the technology is advanced enough to ensure that no harm is done. Banning cloning could possibly make it more dangerous by making such work illegal governments would lose their ability to regulate it. Daniel J. Kevles, the director of the Program in Science, Ethics and Public Policy at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, Calif., made that point in the February 6, 17 New York Times

As the technology evolves to invite human experimentation, it would be better to watch and regulate rather than prohibit. Outlaw the exploration of human cloning and it will surely go offshore, only to turn into bootleg science that will find its way back to our borders simply because people want it.

It would be far better to have control over human cloning then to have absolutely no power to regulate what can and cannot be done.

Human cloning is a technology that cannot be avoided. There are many ways in which people may be able to benefit from this new technology. With government regulation perhaps this technology can be put to good use and we can avoid and control problems that may arise. Human cloning is now the future in science, and the future and cannot be avoided. With cooperation and regulation we can face the future safely and benefit from it.

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Starting a business

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THE STUDY OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE WITHIN THE EDUCATIONAL SECTOR.

BY TUNDE ADELEYE

Abstract

The study of Emotional Intelligence has gained prominence over the years, more so, as it centres on a person's cognitive ability to perceive, understand and manage emotion. It is also a set of skills, when used effectively, to regulate emotion in self and in others. This paper sets out clearly to focus on the study of emotion within the educational sector. This is a relatively new concept in the educational establishment, although not remotely distant to the study of why some pupils with emotional problems behave the way they do. The emotional Intelligence framework developed by two researchers will be used as a focal point to examine the four major areas associated with emotion. Secondly, this paper will argue extensively that most teachers are not attuned to the problems associated with the Emotional Intelligence of students and how to manage them appropriately.

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Finally, and of crucial importance, this paper will attempt to find out if there is a validity to the concept of Emotional Intelligence and how this can be incorporated into the National curriculum.

_____________________________________________________________________

Introduction

The study of Emotional Intelligence is far too important to dwarf into insignificance. In our everyday life, our emotions shape our thoughts, feelings and to a considerable degree, it will almost certainly demonstrate how we manage them. In the contemporary world we live in today, it becomes quite clear that societal problems that afflict one person or one family can affect them for many generations to come. These problems stem from addiction, anger, depression, abandonment, abuse, neglect, rejection, etc.

Undoubtedly, everyone needs love, fulfilment and acceptance in their lives. Not surprisingly, it is their inability to recognise and manage their emotions and that of others that has continued to be the focus of empirical study over the years.

Quite a number of definitions on Emotional Intelligence have been proffered by several psychologists and academicians. They all offer a succinct definition about Emotional Intelligence, and all are agreed at least in principle, that it refers to out innate ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and to reason and problem solve on the basis of them.

Perhaps a more detailed definition was the one given by Josh Freedman, an educator, who said "Emotional Intelligence is the inner capacities that let us create optimal relationships with ourselves and others. The skills include using thoughts, feelings, and actions to build self knowledge, self management and self direction"

During the course of teaching at William Edwards school, one of the major problems I have observed is the unruly and sometimes aggressive behaviour of some students, especially towards teachers. Quite rightly, I found this form of behaviour very hard to accept due to the fact that I come from an ethnic background where is it considered objectionable to disrespect elders.

Having taking a cursory look at the behavioural problems of some students, it is plausible to argue that these problems can only emanate from three main areas, notably; the home, societal influence and the mental state of an individual. In the same breadth, it will be incorrect to assume that all students who have behavioural problems have the same emotional and psychological needs.

Admittedly, like any adult, children have needs which sometimes are not satisfied. Depending on the nature of the need not met, which could either be phyisical, mental or emotional abuse, the effect of this can be rather traumatic for any child. Eventually they become frustrated and these can be acted out in various ways and typically seen as "misbehaviour".

One obvious form of "misbehaviour" often exhibited by some children has been correctly dignosed as Attention Deficit Disorder. Undeniably, students with ADD are prone to have bouts of inattention, impulsiveness and hyperactivity. It is also a known fact that students with ADD tend to learn best when teachers are able to understand and identify their special needs. Once this has been established, teachers can then structure their educational programmes to meet these needs.

The importance of emotions

Understanding the complexity of emotions is a difficult task as it varies from one individual to another. Yet it has to be borne in mind that what constitutes and inevitably leads to various emotions remains a critical component of emotional intelligence.

For instance, when a student's behaviour is called into question, the emotional state of the student may lead to resentment. If not diffused properly, resentment may lead to anger and when this continues or intensifies, may subsequently lead to rage. It is therefore imperative to have the skills to discern how emotions combine and change in the course of dealing with other people.

To a larger extent, all humans possess the basic emotional needs which perhaps is the potential source of uniting all members of the human species. These needs can be expressed in a multitude of ways ranging from respect, acceptance and love. Although it has to be stressed that one person may need more love, whislt others may crave for more freedom and independence. However, unbriddled freedom or too much indulgence on food, may have a long term adverse effect on a person which, ultimately may lead to other problems, psychological, emotional or physical.

What makes emotional intelligence difficult for many teachers to embrace is the salient aspect of trying to understand and manage the emotional problems of many students. To compound this even further, teachers too have their own emotions that in most cases is not in sync with that of the students.

In a concerted effort to use their own skills and self- knowledge to identify the emotional state of certain students, the conclusive truth is that teachers have not been trained to offer counselling to some students. Rather than go down this route, such students have been unfairly labelled and misunderstood.

The perennial question now is; should teachers be allowed to assume sole or part responsibility of managing the emotional problems of students? Or should this activity still remain that of the parents and counselling experts? The answer is far fetched, but certainly not an improbable one that will defeat a collective sense of reasoning.

Arguably, it is usually children in dysfunctional families whose emotional needs are not met. As is often the case, they may witness scenes of constant parental conflict, fighting, alcoholism, physical, mental and sexual abuse and neglect. During these formative years of their young lives, they are subjected to a myriad of negative emotional feelings which painfully leads to depression, loneliness and hopelessness.

Following on from this, when some of these psychologically abused children with bottled up emotional problems are faced with confrontation or control by teachers or their peers, the only way out for them is to release their anger and bitterness in an aggressive manner. This is however not advancing the notion that every aggressive student has an emotional problem that can be traced back to the family.

Using the four branch model of Emotional Intelligence of Mayer and Salovey (17), it is worthwhile discussing the elements of each branch and use it as a construct to understand the underpinning reasons each one.

Four branch model of Emotional Intelligence

·Perception appraisal and expression of emotion

·Emotional facilitation of thinking

·Understanding and analysing eemotions; employing emotional knowldege

·Reflective regulation of emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth

Perception appraisal and expression of emotion

This is the ability to identify emotion in one's physical states, feelinigs, and thoughts. It is also the ability to identify emotions in other people through language, sound, appearance and behaviour. Clearly, there is a distinction between the two. The former is dealing with the emotive feeling of self, whilst the latter is about the emotive feelings of others.

This contruct is extremenly important for teachers to be able to recognise and integrate their own emotional feeling with that of others, i.e colleagues and students. For example, our emotions help us to communicate with others. Similarly, our facial expressions can convey a wide range of emotions.

A likely scenario could be, if a student looks sad or hurt in the classroom, are they signalling to teachers that they need help? If this were to be the case, are teachers effective at identifying the signs and showing empathy by listening to and reassuring the student that they important and cared about? This will depend on the perceptive ability of the teacher to first identify the emotion of the student and to express their own emotion in a positive manner.

Emotional facilitation of thinking

Most of the time, our ability to think proactively enables us to use our feelings constructively to make better decisions. This is true because our emotions serve as an invaluable source of information.

Although sometimes, when a person's emotional connections are severed from the brain, he or she will be deprived of the ability to make simple decisions. The reason why this remains a perturbing issue is because such person will not be in a vantage position to know how he or she will feel about the choices the make. Nevertheless, the ability to let one's feelings guide them to what is important to think about can not be discounted.

Understanding and analysing emotions; employing emotional knowldege

This is the ability to understand the meanings of emotions and how they change. Equally important is the ability to interpret the meanings that emotions convey regarding relationships, such as that sadness often accompanies a loss.

In addition, this construct also gives us the ability to understand complex feelings; simultaneous feelings of love and hate or blends such as awe as a combination of fear and surprise.

For instance, a student who has just experienced the sad feeling of losing a loved one, he or she is likely to go through a mixed feeling of craving love from others, and at the same time, expressing a feeling of hate and anger as a result of their loss. In this kind of scenario, a teacher has to be able to recognise likely transitions among emotions, such as the transition from needing love to extreme anger and hate.

Reflective regulation of emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth

This is the ability to take responsibility for ones's own feelings and happiness. It is also the time to reflectively monitor emotions in relation to oneself and others, such as recognising how clear or rational their actions are. Further to this, it is the ability to manage emotion in oneself and others by moderating negative emotions and enhancing pleasant ones; without repressing or exaggerating information they may convey.

It is especially with this contruct that I strongly feel that teachers have not received any training in a bid to manage the emotional problems of students. Rather than manage the emotional problems of students, what seems to be unmistakably true is the fact that they are good at recognising the problems than resolving them in the long term.

The validity of Emotional Intelligence

The concept attached to Emotional Intelligence can be used interchangeably with Intelligence Quotient. However, there is a sharp distinction between the two. Where IQ is a fixed capacity for processing cognitive information, EI is a set of learnable skills for making decisions, living in integrity, and connecting with others.

According to Mayer, he posited that each baby is born with a certain potential for emotional sensitivity, emotional memory, emotional processing and emotional learning ability. Based on the premise of these four inborn components, he further remarked that they formed the core of one's emotional intelligence. On the strength of this, the innate intelligence can either be developed or damaged with life's experiences, particularly by the emotional lessons taught by the parents, teachers and family during childhood and adolescence.

The validity of EI can be extended to mean it is quite possible for a person to start out with high EI, but then be emotionallly damaged in early childhood, resulting in a low EI later on in life. In contrast, it is also possible for a child to have a relatively low EI, but ultimately receive healthy emotional nurturing and love.

Can Emotional Intelligence be inconrporated into the National curriculum?

In the past when innovative changes were introduced by the Governemnt into education, they have either met with stiff resistance from parents or from the teachers. The problems of implementing such changes were probably seen as impractical and

one not likely to promote the mental development of the students.

Giving this view, the argument that the standard of discipline has fallen since corporal punishment was outlawed, can be ignored. Today, teachers spend so much time trying to control students in the classroom that there is little or not time left for teaching. The matter becomes increasingly worse taking into account that teachers can not expel a child from school, since such a student be become a liability to society.

A feasible and pragmatic system being practiced by William Edwards School is to place students who have emotional problems on Anger Management sessions. It does prove the point that EI is teachable given the necessary resources and the skills of the counsellor. However, an extention of this point is that teachers should be trained on how to integrate the learning process with Emotional Intelligence if EI is critical, then must be teachable.

As it were, many teachers at William Edwards School are ill-equipped to get to know a student at the level of identifying his or her unique emotional needs. They are also ill-equipped to meet those needs. As I argued earlier, this is partly due to the lack of training and partly due to the lack of priority by the educational system itself.

Further still, it has to be recognised that teachers themselves are so preocupied with their own emotional needs that it is seemingly impossible for them to acquiant themselves with the emotional needs of their students. Even when the teachers are aware of the emotional needs of each student, the school is not designed to support teacher in helping the student in this area.

Conclusion

This paper has discussed the concept of Emotional Intelligence in the educational sector and its validity. It has also given a comprehensive analysis of the four branches of EI giving examples in the process. In particular, it has highlighted the problems associated with the emotional problems of students and concluded that such problems were either as a result of parental neglect, abuse or loss.

In the main, such students with emotional problems act out their frustrations, anger and general behavioural problems in school, since students no longer have a respect for teachers and authority.

Lastly, this paper has argued that teachers are not properly trained to cope with the emotional demands and problems of all students. The problem of introducing emotional intelligence into the national curriculum was also commented upon. This may meet with resistance from teachers themselves as they be see the management of emotional problems of the students, the sole responsibility of their parents.

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Marxism and the Media key concepts and cultural trends (Pluto Press 00).

1)Stems from the work of Karl Marx (1818-188). Not a sociologist, but a political philosopher. Karl Marx worked closely with Friedrich Engels

)For a large part of the 0 Century, Marxism was said to be the organising principle of societies that contained 1/ of the earth's population.

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)Huge impact in sociology

4)Splits into two braches Humanist Marxism and Scientific Marxism

5)Recent influence in terms of the Frankfurt School and also the work of Pierre Bourdieu.

1)Classical Marxism explores the historical development of Western Capitalism through a number of stages. A) Primitive Communism B) Ancient Society C) Feudalism D) Capitalism E) Communism. In each stage conflict between opposing groups brings about social change. A difficult term for this view of history is dialectic materialism.

)Ideology Marx focussed on the inequalities of capitalism. In capitalist society, the bourgeoisie own the means of production (own large amounts of capital and therefore have power), whereas the proletariat sell their labour power for a wage. This is where the conflict rests. The system dictates that the ruling class generate more profit (achieved by decreasing wages). Overtime, the worsening of conditions, exploitation and lowering of wages results in a situation where the working class become aware of their class position and unite in a state of revolutionary consciousness. Revolution is, therefore, inevitable. Marx argued, throughout his life, for an end to inequality, exploitation and alienation. Communist society, for him, provided the logical solution for the ills of capitalism.

Classical Marxism is seen as deterministic. The individual is determined by society and is a passive victim of historic and economic forces.

Marxists view capitalist society as being one of class domination; the media are seen as part of an ideological arena in which various class views are fought out, although within the context of the dominance of certain classes; ultimate control is increasingly concentrated in monopoly capital; media professionals, while enjoying the illusion of autonomy, are socialized into and internalize the norms of the dominant culture. The media, taken as a whole, relay interpretive frameworks consonant with the interest of the dominant classes, and media audiences, while sometimes negotiating and contesting these frameworks, lack ready access to alternative meaning systems that would enable them to reject the definitions offered by the media in favour of oppositional definitions.

Curran and Gurevitch (177) pp. 4-5

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Slades haircut

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Slade's Haircut

When Slade steps out of the front door he is blinded for a moment by the white, fizzing sunlight and reaches instinctively for his dads hand.

Its the first really warm day of the year, an unexpected heat that bridges the cusp between spring and summer. Father and son are on their way to the barbershop, something they have always done together.

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As Always, the routine is the same. Its about time we got that mop of yours cut, Slade's dad will say, pointing at him with two fingers, a cigarette wedged between them. Perhaps I should do it. Where are those shears Janet?

Sometimes his dad chases him round the living room, pretending to cut off his ears. When he was young Slade used to get too excited and start crying, scared that maybe he really would lose his ears, but he has long since grown out of that.

Mr. Chuckles' barbershop is in a long room above the chip shop, reached by a steep flight of stairs. There is a groove worn in each step by the men who climb and descend in a regular stream. Slade follows his father, annoyed that he cannot make each step creak like his old man can.

Slade loves the barbershop its like nowhere else he goes. It smells of cigarettes, men, and hair oil. Sometimes the smell of chips will climb the stairs along with a customer, and when the door opens the waiting men lift their noses together.

Black and white photographs of men with various out-of-fashion hairstyles hang above a picture rail at the end of the room, where two barbers chairs are bolted to the floor. They are heavy, old-fashioned chairs with foot pumps that hiss and chatter as Mr. Chuckles, the rolls of his plump neck squashing slightly, adjusts the height of the seat.

In front of the chairs are deep sinks with showerheads that have long metal hoses attached to the taps, not that anyone seems to use them. Behind the sinks are mirrors and on either side of these, shelves overflowing with a mixture of plastic combs (some plunged into a glass bowl containing a blue liquid), shaving mugs, scissors, cut throat razors, hair brushes, stacked neatly in a pyramid, and 10 bright red tubs of Brylcreem.

At the back of the room sit the customers, silent for most of the time, except when Mr. Chuckles breaks off from cutting and takes a drag of his cigarette, sending a wisp of gray-blue smoke like the tail of kite twisting into the air.

When it is Slade's turn for a cut, Mr. Chuckles places a wooden board covered with a piece of oxblood red leather across the arms of the chair, so that the barber doesnt have to stoop to cut the boys hair. Slade scrambles up onto the bench.

The rate youre shooting up, you wont need this soon, youll be sat in the chair, the barber says.

Wow, says Slade, squirming around to look at his dad, forgetting that he can see him through the mirror. Dad, Mr. Chuckles said I could be sitting in the chair soon, not just on the board!

So I hear, his father replies, not looking up from the paper. I expect Mr. Chuckles will start charging me more for your hair then.

At least double the price, said Mr. Chuckles, winking at Slade.

Finally Slade's dad looks up from his newspaper and glances into the mirror, seeing his son looking back at him. He smiles.

Wasnt so long ago when I had to lift you onto that board because you couldnt climb up there yourself, he says.

They dont stay young for long do they, kids, Mr. Chuckles declares. All the men in the shop nod in agreement. Slade nods too.

In the mirror he sees a little head sticking out of a long nylon cape that Mr. Chuckles has swirled around him and folded into his collar with a wedge of cotton wool. Occasionally he steals glances at the barber as he works. He smells a mixture of stale sweat and aftershave as the barbers moves around him, combing and snipping, combing and snipping.

Slade feels like he is in another world, noiseless except for the scuffing of the barbers shoes on the lino and the snap of his scissors. In the reflection from the window, a few small clouds moved slowly through the frame, moving to the sound of the scissors click.

Sleepily, his eyes dropping to the front of the cape where his hair falls with the same softness as snow, he imagines sitting in the chair just like the men and older boys. The special bench left leaning against the wall in the corner.

He thinks about the picture book of bible stories his aunt gave him for Christmas, the one of Samson having his hair cut by Delilah. Slade wonders if his strength will go like Samsons.

When Mr. Chuckles has finished, Slade hops down from the seat, rubbing the itchy hair from his face. Looking down he sees his own thick, blonde hair scattered among the browns, grays and blacks of the men who have sat in the chair before him. For a moment he wants to reach down and gather up the broken blonde locks, to separate them from the others, but he does not have time.

The sun is still strong when they reach the pavement outside the shop, but it is less fiery now, already beginning to drop from its zenith.

I tell you what, lad, lets get some fish and chips to take home, save your mom from cooking, says Slade's dad and turns up the street.

The youngster is excited and grabs his dads hand. The thick skinned fingers close gently around his and Slade is surprised to find, warming in his fathers palm, a lock of his own hair.

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Quality in business

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•Ensuring the product is easy to use

•Ensuring the product is reliable and long lasting

•Building in features that minimise production error

Detection ensures that quality problems are spotted before they reach the customer. Increasingly businesses are making this the responsibility or every employee.

Correction this is not just about correcting faults, but why there is a problem so steps can be taken to ensure it does not recur.

Improvement customer's expectations of quality are always changing and it is important that businesses seek to improve quality.

Total quality management (TQM)

TQM is a philosophy not a management tool. It is a way of looking at quality issues, with every one responsible for looking at quality in every part of the business. TQM is about building in rather than inspecting out. TQM was attempted by BASF by trying to get all their employees to think of those they work for as customers, even if they are fellow employees. An example in BASF would be for the maintenance engineer to treat a shop-floor worker with a defective machine as a valued customer, rather than a nuisance. Other main features of TQM are

•The use of quality circles.

•Emphasis upon service and after-sales service quality as well as quality manufacture.

•The idea that high quality (and low cost) stem from getting things right first time.

Quality circles

This is where a group of employees meet regularly for the purpose of identifying problems and recommending solutions. This is thought of as a Japanese technique, however the idea come from the USA. BASF regularly use this method. The most effective quality circles have these features

•The group consists of between 5 and 10 people and all members have special training in quality control techniques, decision making and problem solving.

•Membership is voluntary and people can choose their own issues/problems too examine.

•The group has access to management and can make suggestions and recommendations.

ISO 000

ISO international organisation for standardisation is the official terminology based on the Greek, isos, meaning equal as in isobar (places with the same atmospheric pressure) or isotherm places with the same temperature.

000 The series of standards. There are three standards

ISO 001 is for businesses such as BASF with a large element of design in what they sell

ISO 00 is for businesses with little or no design in what is sold, e.g. simple standards product

ISO 00 is for small businesses which often use the "WYSIWYG" (what you see is what you get) approach to their product/service, such as window cleaners. (See back page for ISO 001)

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"To fully appreciate organisations you must understand the nature of power and politics within organisations". Critically evaluate this statement.

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The beauty of a prism lies not only in its ability to refract light, but also in the varying perspectives each angle offers. Likewise the analysis of organisations is often encapsulated in three differing viewpoints. They are namely, the structural-rational, symbolic-cultural and the political approaches. Each approach individually though lacks an element or two that inhibits our ability to understand organisations fully. An integration of all three frameworks provides a fuller picture as attractive as a prism in its full glory.

The structural framework focuses on the rational and formal aspects of organisations. This approach is usually associated with excessive bureaucracy and rigidity. According to the structural framework, conflict, if and when it occurs, is due to a lack of differentiation in responsibilities. The result is a highly structured Weberian system, with a clear cut division of labour among positions which enables a high degree of specialisation. Also, the scope of authority of supervisors over subordinates is clearly demarcated, thus reducing the potential for conflict (Blau, p 0). McDonald's manifests such a Weberian system, unlike most other organizations which allow their employees more latitude. As such, conflict does occur, and people have to cope. According to Blau and Schoenherr (17, p -), structure is 'independent of the personalities and psychological dispositions of individual members", and that "organisations are not people".

To a person who lives in a world of logic and rationality, at first glance the symbolic-cultural frame appears not to carry much weight. According to the symbolic framework, what is assumed to be rational is not as rational as it appears and is actually symbolic in nature. Tests and interviews are established elements of organisational practice. According to the symbolic approach, the data produced from these is of doubtful validity; but the process communicates a sense of exclusivity and fairness to those selected. This approach thus rationalises the irrational aspects of organisations for analysts. Rational systems pursue the prediction of outcome from the starting block of activity. The symbolic system on the other hand, looks at the outcome and attempts to explain the cause of it. This is explained by man's need to have a sense of completion and a need to give meaning to events (Bolman and Deal, p 148- 18).

As can be seen, the structural-rational frame dwells in the cold, rational realm, and the symbolic-cultural frame belongs to an almost supernatural plane. The former approach does not consider the effect of humans and is relatively unitarist in analysing organisations. Argyris' (17, p 76-0) critique of Blau, emphasizes that the latter does not consider the separate components of the organisation, i.e. the human perspective. Argyris (157, p 6) highlights that it is next to impossible to understand humans, as a result of which understanding organisations is also difficult. The latter frame is reminiscent of humans in the ancient times- superstitious and seeing omens in the way the wind blows or the flight of a bird. It may lack rationality, but it helps to explain some outcomes which would otherwise not make sense. It thus provides an alternative perspective. The political approach complements and links the rational pragmatic side, as illustrated by the structural approach, as well as the irrationality of humans, as exhibited by the symbolic frame. For this reason, it is very useful to understand the nature of power and politics in organisations.

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For expedient understanding, it is necessary to define these terms. According to Cavanaugh (184, p 10-1) power is analogous to a risky investment where the source must consider the costs and benefits of using the power. Therefore, power can be considered to be potential energy, the sources of which are various (as will be seen). According to Kakabadse and Parker (184, p 5) politics are the interactions that ensue as a result of the exercise of power to achieve the desired outcome. They also suggest that politics can also be used to increase a party's power.

Bacharach and Lawler (180, p 1) argue a convincing case for treating dependence as a formal dimension of power. That is, true power is vested in one who has others dependent upon him. This link is alluded to in The Bases of Social Power by French and Raven (168, p 5-6) in which they propose five sources of power. They are namely, reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power and expert power.

Reward power refers to the carrot approach, whereby A who exerts power over B is able to reward B and thus B does what A wants in anticipation of reward. An example is piecework at a factory.

Coercive power on the other hand is the stick approach, whereby B is motivated to comply with A's wishes so as to reduce punishment. Examples of this form of power can be observed through bullying at the workplace and rumour and gossip. By not obeying A, B can be subjected to bullying and/ or victimisation by discrediting rumours, whether professional or social.

Legitimate power stems from the internal values which B carries. These dictate that A has a legitimate right to influence B which the latter is obliged to accept A's. A monarch's authority over his subjects exemplifies this. Organisational citizenship behaviour may be an effect of A, an employee, acknowledging that the organisation has the right to direct his behaviour. Thus A performs above and beyond expectations.

Referent power can be equated to charisma. As a flame to moths, people with referent power are attractive such that other people wish to identify with them. People who exhibited such characteristics were Mahatma Gandhi and Adolf Hitler.

Expert power exists because B assumes A to be an expert in his field and in deference accepts A's decisions in his field of expertise. A good example that applies to organisations is the control of technology. Mann (15, p 10) comments that by "masculinising" computers, men deny women from being able to use technology as a source of power.

It should also be analysed whether one basis of power is more desirable than another form. It can be concluded that reward power is more desirable than coercive power, because a person would cease performing the desired action the moment the threat of punishment is removed. However resistance would be lesser in the case of reward power, because it is perceived to be an advantageous situation. Amongst the other three bases of power, legitimate power appears to be the most stable, as it is a result of deep seated values which have been ingrained into the psyche of the people. Expert power only lasts as long as one preserves the mirage of superior knowledge. For example, A might be the first in the organisation to learn a new technique. As long as the rest of the organisation remains unfamiliar in the technique, they will defer to A. Once the scales are more balanced, A loses expert power. Therefore, A's interest is in restricting access to the technique, making himself indispensable. Referent power is by definition elusive and thus is most transient. If someone else comes along who is more charismatic, and attracts A's followers, A loses referent power.

Why is power so important? Hickson and McCullough (174, p 11) claim that "Power is the essence of organisation". The cold reality is that the need for resources in an organisation is not matched by sufficient supply. As such, an "invisible hand" would have to determine how the resources will be allocated (Bolman and Deal, p107). "Might is right" goes the old adage. Therefore the party with the most power can decide how the resources should be allocated. Power is accumulated through politics, and the party with the best strategy accumulates the most power. The party gains control of the available resources, which enables them to implement their course of action.

There is debate regarding the place of politics in organisations. In a survey that Pfeffer (1, p 14) examines, 55.1% of managers believe that politics are detrimental to organizational effectiveness and 48.6% feel that top management should try to eliminate politics within the organisation. However, 8% believe that successful executives must be good politicians and 6.8% believe that one has to be political in order to advance in an organisation. The above results highlight that even though politics is viewed as "dirty" and people claim to not want it, it is here to stay. Buchanan and Badham (1, p 610) start their paper by quoting an interviewer and a manager. In it, the interviewer says that managers claim that organizational politics are a distraction and they are not paid for it. To which the manager replies that the interviewees are lying, as they only achieved their position with their skill in politics. Lacking such political skills will leave them lagging. Therefore, as long as one person plays the political game, the rest have to play along, or they will be left behind.

There is an element of conflict in politics, which arises due to the scarcity of resources, as highlighted above. In order to reduce conflict, there has to be a clearly dominant group. What happens when no one group has enough power to get what it wants?

Since there are instances when the scales of power are balanced, coalitions are formed to tip the scales. Tivey comments that an organisation should be thought of "as a coalition of many groups, constantly changing in composition, strength and relationships…" (178, p1). Bolman and Deal (184, p 111) add on that the groups have different objectives and resources, and will attempt to bargain with other groups to form coalitions, with the intended end result of influencing the goals and decisions of the organisation. Since the idea of forming coalitions is to increase a group's power, we can infer that the bargaining process is but a political act that illustrates the dimension of compromise in politics.

The constant instability of organisations is a product of politics. Just as a system in chaos tries to get back into equilibrium, no group likes to be powerless and would thus take action to ensure that its position will be secure. This translates into a constant jockeying for position (Bolman and Deal, p 1).

Chief executive officers (CEOs) of companies may be viewed as all powerful, but this is not true (Bolman and Deal, p 117). They are consummate politicians who have learnt the art of maximizing profits for shareholders whilst at the same time being sufficiently generous with wages to ensure happy employees. This is not the only balancing act that CEOs have to perform. They are called upon daily to make choices, the consequences of which reverberate amongst everyone within the organisation. For example, backing group A over group B in a competition for resources runs the risk of not having the latter's support in a later situation in the future. Therefore the CEO has to make decisions based on both long term and short term considerations. Knowing that compromise is necessary, parties will ask for more than what they need with the hope of getting their actual requirements. It is important to note that power need not just be hierarchical. The CEO is de jure and de facto, the head of the organisation. However the CEO depends on the subordinates to get the work done. Usually, the subordinates can use expert power to subvert the CEO's wishes, if they do not wish to do the required job. CEOs have to understand the reality of the situation, separating fact from fiction. They aim to minimise conflict, knowing the limitations of their power. As such understanding and implementation of politics is important.

Thus far, the other major perspectives in viewing organisations, the structural-rational frame and the symbolic-cultural frame, have been briefly addressed. The main features and the shortcomings of the two frameworks have been noted. The second part of the essay has dealt with the role that power and politics play in organisations. The nature of power has been elucidated, through a brief description of French and Raven's five bases of power. The nature of politics has been expanded, with a study of conflict and compromise and of how politics is needed to maintain or swing the equilibrium of power. The importance of politics has been illustrated through the example of chief executive officers. In conclusion, whilst politics may often be considered a taboo, it penetrates all organizations thoroughly, thus rendering an understanding of power and politics pivotal to an exploration of organisations.

Argyris, C. 157, Personality and Organization The Conflict Between System and the Individual, Harper & Row, New York.

Argyris, C. 17, 'Peter Blau' in Salaman, G. and Thompson, K. (eds) People and Organizations, Longman for Open University Press, London, p 76-0.

Bacharach, S. and Lawler, E. 180, Power and Politics in Organizations, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco.

Blau, P. 174, On the Nature of Organizations, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Blau, P. and Schoenherr, R. 17, 'New Forms of Power' in Salaman, G. and Thompson, K. (eds) People and Organizations, Longman for Open University Press, London, p 1-4.

Bolman, L. and Deal, T. 184, Modern Approaches to Understanding and Managing Organizations, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco.

Buchanan, D. and Badham, R. 1, 'Politics and organizational change The lived experience, Human Relations, vol. 5, no. 5, p 60-6

Cavanaugh, M. 184, 'A Typology of Social Power' in Kakabadse, A. and Parker, C. (eds) Power, Politics and Organizations A Behavioural Science View, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, p -0.

French, J. and Raven, B. 168, 'The Bases of Social Power' in Cartwright, D. and Zander, A. (eds) Group Dynamics Research and Theory, Tavistock Publications, Wiltshire, p 5-6.

Hickson, D. and McCullough, A. 174, 'Power in organizations' in Structure and System Basic Concepts and Theories, Open University Press, London, p -0.

Kakabadse, A. and Parker, C. 184, 'Towards a Theory of Political Behaviour in Organizations' in Kakabadse, A. and Parker, C. (eds) Power, Politics and Organizations A Behavioural Science View, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, p 87-108.

Mann, S. 15, 'Politics and Power in Organizations Why Women Lose Out', Leadership & Organizational Development Journal, Vol. 16, No. , p -15.

Pfeffer, J., 1, Managing with Power Politics and Influence in Organizations, Harvard Business School Press, Boston.

Tivey, L. 178, The Politics of the Firm, St. Martin's Press, New York

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