Electoral College and the sucessio chain

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The Electoral College

The Electoral College process is part of the original design of the U.S. Constitution. It consists of senators and representatives who direct their votes for the state they represent.

The United States Constitution provides that electors be chosen every four years on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The method of choosing electors is determined by the individual states. In all states they are chosen at a general election. The number of electors for each state is equal to the number of its Senators and Representatives in Congress. The total number of electors is 58, a total of 100 Senators, 45 Representatives plus electors for the District of Columbia. Certain federal officials cannot be electors Senators, Representatives, or persons holding an office of trust or profit under the United States.

The U.S. Constitution contains very few provisions relating to the qualifications of electors. Article II, section 1, clause provides that no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. As a historical matter, the 14th Amendment provides that State officials who have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the United States or given aid and comfort to its enemies are disqualified from serving as electors. This prohibition relates to the post-Civil War era. A States certification of electors on its Certificates of Ascertainment is generally sufficient to establish the qualifications of electors.

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Order of Succession

According to the Presidential Succession Act of 147, if the President of the United States is incapacitated, dies, resigns, is for any reason unable to hold his office, or is removed from office (impeached and convicted), people in the following offices, in this order, will assume the office of the President, provided they are qualified as stated by the Constitution to assume the office of the President, which means they have to be must be at least 5 years old, must be a natural-born U.S. citizen, and have lived in the U.S. for at least 14 years.

1.Vice President- Dick Cheney

.Speaker of the House- J. Dennis Hastert

.President Pro Tempore of the Senate - Ted Stevens

4.Secretary of State- Colin Powell

5.Secretary of the Treasury -Paul ONeill

6.Secretary of Defense -Donald Rumsfeld

7.Attorney General -John Ashcroft

8.Secretary of the Interior -Steve Griles

.Secretary of Agriculture -Ann M. Veneman

10.Secretary of Commerce - Don Evans

11.Secretary of Labor Elaine L. Chao

1.Secretary of Health and Human Services - Tommy G. Thompson

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African American Images in Film

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The image of African Americans in film has made a gradual shift from that of the past. From the degrading and negative stereotypes of the early minstrel shows, to the inspirational and uplifting depiction of race movies, to the breaking of role barriers of modern day films. This gradual shift has allowed the African American culture to develop and expand along with the likes of the motion picture industry, all the while dealing with, experiencing and overcoming the racial stereotypes that served as barriers for African Americans in the beginning.

The early images of African Americans, stemming from that of the times of slavery, were depictions of an uneducated people, happy go lucky people, people who sat around doing nothing all day but dancing and singing, eating and sleeping.

These images were images that derived from the times of slavery. The stereotypical images and misconceptions of African American images in movies have been a constant theme of mockery and ignorance since slavery. The ideas, thoughts, story and content of the movies derived from the narrow and racist mindframe of White America and the White culture. These misconceptions and racial depictions of African Americans developed into the very controversial minstrel shows. The way of life for African Americans during the time of minstrel shows, was a mockery. And as their way of living made it to the stage, the only way to be heard through entertainment for many African American actors, was to convey the portrayal of their culture and image through the racially stereotypical form.1

The African American image was depicted in such a negative way through the racial stereotypes of the minstrel shows, perpetuation of the African American slave life, yet with the development of these minstrel shows, their negativity and very stereotypical subject matter and racial classification, an opportunity and a chance paved the way for African Americans to enter into the motion picture industry.

With the introduction of the motion picture industry, white America now had a way to visually project the stereotypical views of African Americans. The industry became the medium to reinforce many commonly held beliefs about African Americans. The most demeaning held that African Americans were good for entertainment purposes. Soon those ideas and perceptions of African Americans were projected on screen and White America was now able to create and reconstruct stories and visually project them onto the screen for viewing.

Yet the neither the creating nor constructing took place, for they simply incorporated the popular cultural symbols, images and views of the time. The end result, images of African Americans on screen that mirrored the racial and stereotypical images of society. White American Filmmakers borrowed their racial themes and characters from white sources. Unwilling or unable to develop new material for a growing movie audience, many filmmakers played on race humor, with African Americans as the center and theme of many jokes and pranks. This particular practice continued as more and more imagery of African Americans were incorporated onto the movie screen.

An outcry to this depiction and portrayal of African Americans inspired many African American writers, producers and actors to develop a genre that would be inspirational and uplifting to the African American people. A new genre that would show that African Americans were full of dignity and pride, very talented and capable of playing educated and highly interesting theatrical roles. This genre that developed for the inspiration of African Americans were called race movies and they served the specific purpose of inspiring and uplifting, and erasing the racial stereotypes that had already been form.

The race movies became a success and introduced many new and non-stereotypical roles for African Americans. Race movies were made specifically by and for African Americans and it was no wonder that the downfall of the race movie era centered on the whites trying to capitalize in on the success of them. Yet nonetheless, with the integration of African Americans and whites in the motion picture industry, new roles, new perceptions and new pathways were set. This particular relationship of whites and blacks lead to the development of the modern day films of today where African Americans are taking on mostly the same kind of inspirational and uplifting, educational and talented roles of their white counterparts.

The year now, is 00, and looking back, it has been a long, long road for African Americans in the film industry. It is important to understand just how and why the African American image and presence in film has such a significant importance to those of African American descent especially but to those who are

interested in their struggle as well. In order to understand just how and why African Americans came to where they are now in 00 in the motion picture industry, one has to take a trip back to the beginning and ride along that paved path that gave birth to the gradual shift of African Americans in film today.

The Movie medium itself was invented during the late 1800's with the invention of the motion picture camera and projector. Movies were not the invention of one person First, the device to photograph moving objects had to be invented, the motion picture camera and then a device to project those pictures, a projector. The entire development process involved six people Etienne Jules Marey, Eadweard Muybridge, Thomas Edison, William K. L. Dickson, and Auguste and Louis Lumiere. 1

Each inventor contributed significantly to the development of movies, however, it was Thomas Edison who organized the first public American showing of a motion picture premier with an improved camera developed by inventor Thomas Armat on April , 186.1 This was an important start for the motion picture industry and with that, movies became sideshows and then nickelodeons, and then into full screen pictures. In addition, in 188, African-Americans first appeared on the screen, appearing only months after the first theatrical projection of moving images.

The first films showed black soldiers embarking for the Spanish American war of 188. From there on, as editing for the moving images improved, black figures

fell more in life with the racial stereotypes of the day, appearing as chicken thieves, venal preachers, and the like. They only rarely turned up in marginally authentic roles in films such as the Rights of Nations (107) which depicted black culture in a warped form.

As the anniversary of the Civil War approached in 110, African American slaves, once the focus of combat, were reduced to sentimental figures who often sided with their Southern masters against their Northern liberators.

The first steps toward a specifically black cinema arose out of these rituals of white chauvinism. Bill Foster, an African American whose work has been lost, made such films as The Railroad Porter, probably a light comedy set in a particularly black milieu in 11. The Birth of a Race (118), two years in the making and perhaps three hours in length, began as a response to D.W. Griffith's Birth of a Nation (115), the most renowned and artistically, the most compelling of the genre of African American films. 4

After World War I, the American movie industry gradually moved to California- Hollywood. The so-called Jazz Age offered little new to African Americans. Few movies offered blacks parts with any authenticity. Such parts included the grizzled hobo in Jim Tully's tale of the lowly, Beggars of Life (18); the seaman boldly played by the boxer George Godfrey in James Cruze's Old Ironsides (16). However, blacks generally played out conventional roles as chorus girls, convicts, racetrack grooms, boxing trainers, and flippant servants. These roles were simple reminders of previous years when the African American actor had

only certain stereotypical roles they portrayed or played. These roles were defined through that of Minstrel Shows.

Minstrel Shows developed in the 1840s, peaked after the Civil War and remained popular into the early 100s. Minstrelsy was product of its time, the only entertainment form born out of blind bigotry. In the shows, white men blackened their faces with burnt cork to lampoon Negroes, performing songs and skits that sentimentalized the nightmare of a slave life on Southern plantations. Blacks were shown as innocent buffoons who sang and danced the days away.4 White entertainer Thomas Rice, better known as Tommy "Daddy Rice, who witnessed a handicapped black man dancing and singing the Jim Crow song, popularized blackface in the early 1800's. He took this dance, exaggerated it and performed in black face. This type of performance, blackface, became a hit and perpetuated all the racial stereotypes of African Americans. This became a popular misrepresentation since slavery times. Minstrel shows were so popular that even some African American performers had to use them to be heard. "African American performers, even the most talented, could not escape the fantastically artificiality of the caricature in which they had been imprisoned". Light skinned African American actor, Bert Williams had to "blacken"5 up just to perform. Even though he was a well-spoken man, he had to perform like the stereotypical sambo in a show called Real Coons. Al Jolson, another performer of blackface, was far the most famous graduate of minstrelsy. He toured with the traveling minstrel shows before entering Broadway and

Hollywood. He his especially known for his blackface role in that of the "The Jazz Singer" (18).1

No one ever accused Al Jolson as being a racist. Jolson, a Russian born Jew, openly advocated equal rights for blacks at a time when it was very dangerous to do so. He insisted that blackface gave him the emotional freedom to take risks as a performer.

Whatever his intentions were for the performance in blackface, the sight of a white man covered with burnt cork singing " Mammy" was an unsettling reminder of the racial and cultural mindset to African Americans that was portrayed through the performance of minstrel shows.

Yet, no matter how unsettling the sight was and how much minstrelsy reminded African Americans of the racial and cultural mindsets or the perpetuations of African American stereotypes, the popularity of these images on the stage entered into the likes of the motion picture industry; paving the way for African Americans to enter the motion picture industry after the Civil War.

However, with this unsettling remainder, many African American producers, writers, and actors wanted to be portrayed in an uplifting light. They wanted African Americans in film to play roles that did not stereotype their culture but inspired it. They wanted films that were not based on the slavery life or the old African American life of singing and dancing, joking and jiving. As time moved on, many African Americans wanted more from the pictures they were acting in, they no longer wanted the roles of the uneducated black person.5

Beginning in 110 and continuing through World War II, a new genre arose in the film industry. This new genre called "race movies" was a development by African American independent filmmakers who were frustrated with the stereotypes of African American people. The race movies came into being because white Hollywood refused to acknowledge that African Americans were anything more than shufflin', scratchin', and grinnin' people who leaned on brooms and spoke bad English. The independent filmmakers, frustrated, decided to take their own cameras and make their own films, in order to show that the African American people were more than what Hollywood had stereotyped them to be.

Between 110 and the early 150's, more than 500 race films were produced, directed, and distributed, mostly by African American film companies, to what were primarily African American owned theaters and their African American audiences. " I was blown away from seeing those black images in stories that were dramatic" says Pearl Bowser, a film archivist and producer of the race-film documentary "Midnight Ramble". "I felt a presence of identity was going on the screen. It was stimulating- a time when you could connect with the people in the movie."

Oddly, so-called race movies, many of which have been lost, were inspired by D.W. Griffith's glorification of the Ku Klux Klan, " The Birth of a Nation." The 115 epic, which the American Film Institute questionably lists as one of the greatest American movies of all time, gives a naïve and one-sided view

of Reconstruction, and portrays African American men as ugly animals who love to rape women. "The film is almost universal recognized as a milestone in the development of world cinema".5

It portrays the freed slaves as brutes out to conquer the white women. The film includes just bout all the stereotypes of African Americans that had been developing in the movies since the mid 180s" (leap 5). Contrary to the blatant racial stereotypes in this movie, it is still considered by many to be a masterpiece. The outcries against The Birth of a Nation did nothing more than drive the racism underground. Future film portrayals still held underlying racism and stereotypes. African Americans were not able to attain any dignified roles. If an African American was allowed any stature at all, it was in servile role.

A year later after D.W. Griffiths tale hit the screens, two brothers, George and Noble Johnson produced through their Lincoln Motion Picture Company, " The Realization of a Negro's Ambitions". This film was the first feature-length film produced, directed and starring African Americans. George Johnson described the film, about an African American man who strikes oil and becomes a millionaire, as " the first successful, Class 'A' Negro motion picture minus all burlesque and humiliating comedy." This production indeed opened the path for race movies.5

Most notable in the movement was Oscar Micheaux, who is considered the Dean of Early Black American cinema and had made over 40 films known during

his lifetime and is considered the prolific African American filmmaker. Oscar Micheaux was born in 1884 in Metropolis, Illinois. 5

After living in Chicago in the early 100s, Micheaux believed the only independent future for the African American man lay on the Western Frontier. Inspired by the teachings of Booker T. Washington and the pioneer philosophy of Horace Greeley, Micheaux believed that there was no future without the access to and ownership of land. He was a determined entrepreneur who literally went west to make his fortune.5

In 108, he began writing novels and with the production of the film by the Johnson brothers, they approached Micheaux and asked to purchase the film rights for his popular novel, the Homesteader. He adapted the novel "The Homesteader," about an African American man living on the plains of South Dakota, into a film in 117; it was released in 11, gathering rave reviews and tremendous box office success.5

Micheaux covered a variety of subjects in his movies. He portrayed African Americans in melodramas, dramas about social problems, gangster stories and musicals all without resorting to stereotypes. Micheaux's films offered a wide range look at African American life in early 0th century America, and his themes reverberate with contemporary urgency, probing such issues as the politics of skin. In contrast to the usual Hollywood treatment of African Americans, Micheaux frequently showed them in positions of authority and respectability. Despite criticisms that they were unrealistic, they were a source of pride to the African American Community. They offered depiction of fully developed black

characters that were an alternative to the simplistic and often cruel stereotypes of mainstream cinema. Some 0-race film companies were formed after his triumph, with hundreds of the movies being shown in black-owned theaters across the country. There were independent companies producing race films in such diverse locations such as Jacksonville, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Chicago and New York.5

According to Dr. Adrienne Lanier Seward, a professor at Colorado College, "films were popular with black audiences, despite their low budgets and technical inferiority compared with the mainstream productions because they catered specifically to the imaginations of African Americans." " The appeal to often lay in their ability to capture the social themes of education, upward mobility, race, pride, social achievement and patriotism, which were daily concerns in African American life in the decades before and after World War II," noted Seward. More important, she adds, interest in those themes conveyed the notion that " black audiences were not inherently different from…whites."

Indeed, Oscar Micheaux attacked such topics head on, talking up taboo subjects of lynching and other injustices visited upon African Americans in the South after the Civil War. Others focused on color and class in the black community, and the effects of social ills like alcoholism and domestic abuse.

The moviegoers were not the only ones who benefited. William Greaves, an actor who starred in several race films, including "Miracle in Harlem" and " Souls of Sin", says the movement also created an outlet for actors who were tired of the

buffoon roles offered to them in movies like D.W. Griffith's " The Birth of a Nation" and " Gone with the Wind."

Many actors, who had roles of shufflin' and dancin' in early minstrel shows, now had a chance and were able to establish themselves as serious artists in the setting of race movies.

Many African American actors of the early minstrel shows were indeed isolated and depicted showing that this is how all black people were, this was the African American culture and this is how they are to be portrayed. It gave white Americans the chance to oppress African Americans with impunity by demeaning their character and standards and making sure that they were widely displayed through the film medium. The film industry itself served as a medium that reinforced the ideas and beliefs of the white culture. As long as there were racist white filmmakers, the African American image and culture would continue to be ridiculed and racially depicted.

It is for this particular reason that race movies became and were so popular and remains so today. The African American culture wants to be shown on screen in a positive way, they no longer wanted to be racially ridiculed and humiliated. The times of slavery were over and many African Americans wanted to be representative in truth and not by how White American judged them. According to Tony Cade Bambera a writer in the Bowsers documentary "Race movies are proof that certain kinds of assaults on the image of African Americans, such as Birth of a Nation, did not go unanswered, race movies were proof that there was a movement in those days to try to do justice to African American characters and to community life." "It gives us memories," Bambara says, "and a sense of the past and puts a bone in the back."4

Yet, in the midst of all of the inspiration and newfound roles that blacks had especially in the films of Oscar Micheaux. Hollywood, considered mainstream cinema, sought out a way to capitalize on the successful earnings that many prosperous race movies were having. In 1, race movies made by African American producers started to die out when Hollywood saw the market. The mainstream industry began making films with Black outcasts for Black

audiences, choking off independent producers and distributors. Which lead to the new development of Modern day films.

Once the mainstream cinema started focusing on making money from black films, they started to integrate African Americans into their world. The disappearance of race movies led to the integration of African Americans into mainstream cinema. And with the integration of African American in mainstream cinema, came new opportunities, new roles and new depictions of the African American society, though the underlying traces of racism and stereotypes were still there, African Americans as a whole started to receive better opportunities and better roles in the motion picture industry.

Yet a younger generation of African American filmmakers emerged from academic settings, asserting that black expression could be appreciated on its own terms, this new black cinema aimed to preserve black culture both within the Hollywood system and apart from it. New distributors, including Black Filmmakers Foundation, California Newsreel, and Woman Make Movies, Inc., aimed at select audiences and academic circles rather than mass markets.

The best known of the new black filmmakers during the 180's and 10's was probably Spike Lee, who managed to win large audiences for almost everything he produced, film school exercises, credit-card financed early efforts such as She's Gotta Have It (186), television commercials, and promotional pieces. He also directed a string of Hollywood successes, including one of the most

politically challenging and commercially successful films of the new black cinema Do The Right Thing (18).5

As black filmmakers became more prolific, black actors in Hollywood, Super name or not such as the likes of Denzel Washington, Danny Glover, Halle Berry, Will Smith, and Jada Pinkett, among others got steady, rather than sporadic work. Denzel Washington and Halle Berry are credited with being the two first African Americans to win an Emmy Award. By the late 10s, the steadily expanding African American presence in American film seemed to assure a solid future for the new black cinema.4

So in conclusion, the gradual shift of the image of African Americans from that of the development of minstrel shows, to that of the inspirational and uplifting race movies to the modern films of today, has indeed allowed the African American culture to develop and expand along with the likes of the motion picture industry. The journey for African Americans to be able to have a positive representation on screen was a long and hard road to take and with out a doubt there are still many barriers that need to broken even today. But the change from the past to now has been well worth it and now African Americans can at least know that many roles that are available today were not even thought of in earlier days. African American have sought to change, redevelop and redefine their racially depicted image filled with racism and stereotypes held by White Americans, all the while dealing with, experiencing and overcoming the racial stereotypes that served as barriers for African Americans in the beginning.

End Notes

1. Shirley Biagi. Media Impact An Introduction to Mass Media 6th edition (California Thomson and Wadsworth, 00), 148-14.

. Leab, Daniel J. From Sambo to Superspade The Black Experience in Motion Pictures (Boston, MA Houghton Mifflin Co 175).

. Lott, Tommy. "Black Film Issue." Black American Literature Forum 5. (17), 8-8

4. Barclay, Dolores 'A Separate Cinema' a retrospective of 'race movies' July 18. http//www.ardmoreite.com/stories/07078/ent_blacks.shtml

5. Jones, Tiffany Iruwa African Americans in Film From Birth of a Nation to Spike Lee 18. www.albany.edu/projren/18_/jones.html

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ShakespeareRomeo and JulietAct 3, Scene 1

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I am directing Act , Scene 1, lines 0-17. I have decided to set it in a school (Verona High) to appeal more to the younger audience. I am hoping that by doing this it shall make the scene easier to understand as it is set in a familiar environment. Also, by doing this I gained inspiration for costumes, scenery and stage directions.

There are four main characters in this scene each with very different personalities. Mercutio is very sarcastic and the joker of the school. I would suggest to the actor playing this part to be clear in his body language and facial expressions that he is being sarcastic. Also as a joker relies on the reactions of other people I would insure that the other Montagues would respond in this way, seeing the humour in what he says. When he says, "Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man," the people around him think he's joking so giggles are heard as they think it is all an act.

Benvolio is the sensible one who is keen not to get in trouble with the Capulets and so, when he says, "By my head, here comes the Capulets," he shows his sensibility and fear of them by indicating to go. When no one else follows he decides to stay with his friends. All the way through this scene he appears nervous if not for his safety but for his friends' as he is not the one getting involved.

Tybalt hates the Montagues with a vengeance and isn't afraid to go out of his way to show this. I see this character as a rather static and moody person so I would advise the actor to keep all emotion to a minimum so when any emotion is displayed it has a bigger impact on the audience. I also see Tybalt as being the popular captain of the football team type of guy - cool but conventionally cool.

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Romeo knows what will happen if he loses control so tries to keep his cool but when Tybalt keeps taunting him he loses control and does things he cannot believe he has done. He is ruled by his heart and it affects everything he does. The reason he is trying in the first place is because he knows Tybalt is now a relative and doesn't want to cause more friction between the families. Because of this he is trying to be friendly and brotherly but it doesn't work.

The two different families react in different ways to different people. When Mercutio is being his sarcastic self the other Montagues are laughing and cheering him on whereas the Capulets are glaring at him and looking down their noses at the Montagues. Each family stands on their own side of the stage so it is obvious to the audience who is on which side. The Capulets are behind Tybalt on stage left and the Montagues behind Mercutio stage right.

To show this scene is set in a school, I have decided to have the netting that surrounds a tennis court painted on the flats across the back. An advantage to performing this in modern times is that we have curtains so people can die on stage to make the story more dramatic. One thing I would keep from Shakespeare's theatre is the sloped stage. This way some characters can be sitting or lying on a slope and the audience can still see them.

My version being set in modern times means I have to use modern styles. The Montagues will all be 'grungers' wearing baggy jeans, baggy t-shirts and hooded jumpers. The Capulets will all be 'townies' wearing sports clothes and denim jackets. By doing this you can tell the difference between the two different families with it still looking natural.

The scene will open with the Montagues all lazing on the bank. By doing this there are instantly different levels, which makes the scene more interesting to look at. Tybalt would stroll on and talk pleasantly until Mercutio says, "Consort? What, dost thou make us minstrels?" At this, Mercutio jumps up and plays the air guitar. I thought this, as minstrels would travel from town to town telling stories and playing music on an instrument like a lute. When Mercutio says, "Here is my fiddlestick…" he puts up his fists, ready to fight, with Tybalt following. Benvolio then comes between them to stop them fighting.

After Romeo has entered and Tybalt has said, "The love I bear thee can afford no better term than this. Thou art a villain." Tybalt spits out his gum to show his disgust. At this, Romeo holds up his hands to show his innocence. Mercutio interrupts with his disbelief that Romeo is taking all this and when he says, "Good King of Cats…" he bows low to Tybalt, his eyes still fixed on him.

With both the fights, they would be a typical school fight hair pulling, kicking, punching etc. with a crowd gathering around them shouting encouragement to the fighters. When Mercutio dies he is supposed to be killed under Romeo's arm so Romeo comes between them to stop the fight and while he is talking Tybalt pulls out a penknife from his pocket and stabs Mercutio. When Tybalt is killed, he and Romeo fight much the same as he and Mercutio did but the penknife falls out of his pocket so Romeo grabs it and stabs him. As soon as that happens there is silence as Romeo realises what he has done, the lights flash to indicate lightning and there are rain sound effects while everyone backs off stage leaving Romeo standing over Tybalt. I thought this should happen as with all films and plays it starts to rain when something bad has happened so this makes it more obvious to the audience. The weather is also reflecting Romeo's remorse. That is where the curtains would close and the scene ends.

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Titan Watches

If you order your research paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Titan Watches. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Titan Watches paper right on time.

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Every organisation needs a clearly articulated strategy. An organisation works towards achieving clear objectives. A strategy demands good planning, based on rigorous thinking and tough self-assessment. Organisations need to focus on long-term planning in which they define their overarching goals, direction and strategy. They need to identify the end results and work towards accomplishing them.

Organisations are often reluctant to plan because they see the plan as a straitjacket, destroying their flexibility. They fear that a plan will not let them respond to new opportunities and changing circumstances. Where they err is in viewing a plan as a taskmaster rather than as a tool. A plan only sets standards against which to measure your decisions and performance.

Abandoning strategy leads to confusion within an organisation. Strategising is an important process in the functioning of an organisation. Once a direction has been set, it is easier to manage an organisation. Whether the strategy is long term or not depends on the company and the industry. In some industries the pace of change is faster than it is in others.

About four years ago, the Indian market was opened to foreign competition. Titan realised then that the Indian watch market would undergo tremendous change as it was moving from a reasonably uncompetitive era to an intensely competitive one. It was important to keep one's options open and to keep the strategy flexible.

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Every organisation needs a clearly articulated strategy. An organisation works towards achieving clear objectives. A strategy demands good planning, based on rigorous thinking and tough self-assessment. Organisations need to focus on long-term planning in which they define their overarching goals, direction and strategy. They need to identify the end results and work towards accomplishing them.

Organisations are often reluctant to plan because they see the plan as a straitjacket, destroying their flexibility. They fear that a plan will not let them respond to new opportunities and changing circumstances. Where they err is in viewing a plan as a taskmaster rather than as a tool. A plan only sets standards against which to measure your decisions and performance.

Abandoning strategy leads to confusion within an organisation. Strategising is an important process in the functioning of an organisation. Once a direction has been set, it is easier to manage an organisation. Whether the strategy is long term or not depends on the company and the industry. In some industries the pace of change is faster than it is in others.

About four years ago, the Indian market was opened to foreign competition. Titan realised then that the Indian watch market would undergo tremendous change as it was moving from a reasonably uncompetitive era to an intensely competitive one. It was important to keep one's options open and to keep the strategy flexible.

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Elementary Education Mathematics Textbook analysis

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Textbook Analysis

Mathematical Tools

Mathematical tools are objects or ideas that teachers utilize to demonstrate and teach concepts in all areas of math. These mathematical tools include hands-on activities such as games, worksheets, additional resources, literature. Textbooks should be evaluated on how they use mathematical tools in each chapter and lesson. Some tools are essential when teaching a lesson out of the textbook and others are optional or for use by the teacher only. It is important to evaluate how well the students use the tools to understand mathematical concepts. And lastly it is important that the text uses a variety of tools to assess one single concept.

In the Silver Burdett Ginn Mathematics textbooks we examined probability and statistics. There are many mathematical tools that are essential in teaching these lessons. The first is Discussion Starters (Grade 4, Chapter 4, pg 1). The textbook gives you exactly five straight forward questions along with their answers. The textbook also gives you specific things to say and do. For example, each lesson has a Problem of the Day that you can write on the board and encourages one right answer. In part of the chapter you can make math connections to the real world with Data Analysis and Probability (Grade 4, Chapter 4, pg. 15). In both the 4th and 5th grade books the chapters include worksheets that help the students practice, re-teach or extend the lesson. Each worksheet has right or wrong answers and gives the answers in the manual. Each chapter also has a chapter test that can simply be copied and given out. All of these mathematical tools are essential for teaching using these textbooks. However there are some tools that are optional and those help individualize each lesson. The Gifted and Talented section gives activities and projects that can help maximize your students learning and keep them busy if they finish early (Grade 4, Chapter 4, pg. 16). Using Technology sections are useful if you have access to computers because they offer more exciting ways to develop multiplication or other problems. At the end of the lessons there are Project Links that are optional if there is more time or a need for extra emphasis (Grade 5, Chapter , pg. 101). There are checkpoints in the middle of each chapter that stop and review what they students have learned. A Vocabulary Review is offered to teachers only if they wish to review the terms before the students begin with the checkpoint (Grade 5, Chapter pg. 104). Also assessment ideas are included at these checkpoints and they include ideas that the students can write about in their journals.

In Silver Burdett Ginn, the tools help emphasize what they have learned but they encourage convergent thinking. The worksheets and tests all have been written and the answers are straight forward. There were very few times where the tools encouraged individuality and creative thinking. There was a variety of tools used in these textbooks including CD-rom, vocabulary reviews and project link ideas. However they still all encouraged one answer and convergent thinking.

In the Investigations Curriculum Unit textbooks we also examined lessons on probability and statistics. The mathematical tools we found in these books differed greatly from Silver Burdett Ginn in many ways. The first way was that the actual materials were less straight forward and more inquiry based. The worksheets included in the back of the book encouraged many answers and were very blank compared to the others. The actual lessons used words like have the students label, brainstorm, relate, distinguish, suggest, and associate. These words all have to do with more thinking and discussing ideas instead of being told the right answer and actual definition. The students came up with their own definition of probability by making a timeline with impossible, unlikely and possible as their points. The students would then discuss and link ideas to each other which encouraged communication and investigation (Grade 5, Session 1, pg. 4). Each lesson gives you questions to ask that lead the students in many different directions. Each question does not lead to one specific answer or activity. For example, the class decides which are the more logical events for the timeline and where to place each event. The teacher is told to list all the suggestions the children give which encourages equal praise for each student's response. These lessons set up a safe environment for the students to participate in without getting cut down or overly praised. One lesson encourages teachers to use math along the course of a day instead of limiting it during the assigned math hour. The final project also gives the students the chance to carry out an extended investigation of data from questions. (Grade 4, sessions 1 and , pg. 5)

In Investigations, the textbook gives Teacher Notes that give heads up for problems or ways to maximize the lessons. The textbook also gives a Dialogue Box in order to help students refine their questions without giving them too much guidance (Grade 4, sessions 1 and , pg. 58). Overall, The Investigations series helps teachers enhance an inquiry based classroom. The activities and lessons encourage divergent thinking and reasoning. Each lesson truly is an investigation of math and prepare students to think on their own and represent data in several ways.

Please note that this sample paper on Elementary Education Mathematics Textbook analysis is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Elementary Education Mathematics Textbook analysis, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Elementary Education Mathematics Textbook analysis will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Dioxin: Biological Toxicity

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Dioxin is considered to be one of the most toxic substances known to the human race. The history of dioxin in the United States is filled with controversy and debate. Questions regarding whether dioxin causes cancer, as well as myriad other diseases, and the nature of the risk associated with these diseases abound in the media and literature. A wealth of evidence has shown that dioxin causes carcinogenic, neurological, reproductive, developmental, physiological, and immunotoxic effects in various animal models, yet very little evidence exists to implicate dioxin as a cause of human disease. Scientists currently lack important information pertaining to the biological mechanisms of dioxin's actions and consequently cannot properly assess the chemical's health risks. In this paper, I will summarize the biological effects that have been shown to result dioxin exposure and discuss current views regarding the biological mechanisms responsible for these effects.

BACKGROUND

Dioxins represent a family of 75 toxic chemicals, none of which occur naturally, nor have they been intentionally produced for any useful purpose. Dioxins are byproducts of the modern industrial age. ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is the most thoroughly studied and the most toxic of the 75 dioxin isomers. As a pure solid, TCDD is colorless, odorless, lipid-soluble and only sparingly soluble in water (Williams, 001).

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TCDD is created by solid and hazardous waste incinerators, the manufacture of chlorine bleached paper, the combustion of wood in the presence of chlorine, cement kilns, metal smelting, burning chlorinated benzenes and biphenols (PCBs), and the manufacture of certain pesticides and herbicides (,4,5-T) (Williams, 001).

Dioxin bioaccumulates in adipose tissue and can be found in most people. Because TCDD bioaccumulates in the food chain, the major route of human exposure is through the ingestion of food containing TCDD, especially fish, meat and dairy products. It has been estimated that food accounts for 8 percent of total adult exposures (Poindexter, 1).

Dioxin has received much media attention in the past few decades and thus has become a public concern. Dioxin has a reputation of being extremely toxic, which is based primarily on tests performed on guinea pigs, the most dioxin-sensitive mammalian species. By comparison, the hamster is 5,000 to 10,000 times more resistant in similar toxicity tests (Poindexter, 1).

1. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Dioxin is toxic to some animal species, but the evidence for corresponding toxicity in humans has not been established. No deaths due to systemic dioxin toxicity in humans have been reported. Only two clinical effects have been repeatedly observed in exposed populations chloracne and transient hepatic effects. Epidemiological evidence suggests that dioxin may play a role in heart disease, hypothyroidism, and diabetes. (Williams, 001).

Chloracne

Chloracne is the only overt effect of dioxin exposure in human populations Acneiform lesions may appear as early as one to three weeks after dioxin exposure. The lesions are small, pale yellow cysts, which are the result of altered differentiation of acinar sebaceous basal cells into keratinocytes. The lesions primarily involve the face, especially the periorbital, temporal and malar areas, as well as the upper body (Poindexter, 1).

A genetic basis for the dermal responses to dioxin has been defined in selected laboratory animals. In experiments performed on mice, scientists observed strain-specific differences in the cutaneous reactions of haired and hairless mice to the topical application of dioxin (Joseph, Burton, Michalek, & Alton, 18).

Hepatic Effects

Although hepatotoxicity from TCDD exposure has been observed in a variety of animal species, there is no evidence that TCDD causes long-term hepatotoxicity in humans. Some studies have shown a transient increase in hepatic enzyme levels without clinical disease. Studies involving victims of the Seveso, Italy and Times Beach, Mo. incidents suggested subclinical hepatic effects (Poindexter, 1).

Animal studies have revealed potential mechanisms for dioxin's action upon the liver. One toxicology study, using rats, showed that dioxin may cause changes in enzymes of oxidated stress in the liver resulting in hepatic effects (Kern, Fishman, Song, Brown, & Fonseca, 00) Another experiment, performed on mice, showed that dioxin increases mitochondrial respiration-dependent reactive oxygen production, which may play an important role in dioxin-induced toxicity and disease (Seneft, et al., 00).

Heart Disease

A study involving 1,18 German workers in a pesticide factory found a dose-dependent relationship to deaths from heart disease, as well as cancer, among workers exposed to dioxin. Exposed workers showed an increase in death due to ischemic heart disease, a narrowing of the arteries, causing a reduction of blood flow resulting in heart attack (Williams, 001).

Thyroid

Dioxin is structurally similar to the thyroid hormone. Some of its toxic effects resemble hypothyroidism, a reduced functioning of the thyroid gland. Deficiencies of thyroid hormone during fetal life or early infancy can lead to mental impairment, hearing loss, and speech problems. Even when IQs measure in the normal range, thyroid deficiency can result in language comprehension problems, impaired learning and memory, and hyperactive behavior (Williams, 001).

Diabetes

Dioxin alters glucose tolerance and interferes with the hormone, insulin. A ten-year follow-up study of 55 exposed workers found half to be diabetic or with abnormal glucose tolerance tests, an early sign of diabetes. The risk of diabetes appears to rise 1% for every 100 picogram dioxin/gram (pg/g) of lipid in the blood (Williams, 001).

Toxicology studies using animal models also support a link between dioxin and diabetes. Cranmer, et al., found that high blood dioxin levels may result in insulin resistance (Cranmer, Louie, Kennedy, Kern, & Fonseca, 000). Kern, et al., found that dioxin stimulated tumor necrosis factor and inhibited glucose transport and lipoprotein lipase in adipose cells, providing a possible physiologic mechanism for epidemiologic studies that link dioxin to diabetes (Kern, Dicker-Brown, Said, Kennedy, & Fonseca, 00).

BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Dioxin may interfere with normal endocrine function by disrupting natural hormones. Estrogen, glucocorticoid, prolactin, insulin, gastrin, melatonin, and other hormones are affected by dioxin, either by its activity on the hormone or receptor. Further studies are needed to determine the exact mechanisms of disruption (EPA, 000).

The available data indicates an involvement of dioxin in processes regulating cellular differentiation and proliferation, as well as those controlling endocrine homeostasis. Physiological effects related to dioxin exposure are presumed to be mediated through interaction with a specific protein called the Ah receptor. This process involves the binding of TCDD to the receptor, followed by the binding of the receptor-ligand complex to DNA recognition sites. This leads to the expression of specific genes and translation of their protein products, which then mediate their biological effects. Differences in toxicity may result from countless variations related to this chain of events (EPA, 000).

. NEUROLOGICAL EFFECTS

Although dioxins have produced neurotoxic results in laboratory animals, data from human studies have been inconsistent and inconclusive. In one epidemiological study, peripheral nervous system involvement was studied six years after the Seveso accident in 15 persons with chloracne. No case of peripheral neuropathy was found; however, subclinical peripheral nerve impairment was reported in 16 persons (EPA, 000) In another human study involving Dutch children, it was found that neurotoxic effects of prenatal dioxin exposure may persist into school age, resulting in subtle cognitive and motor developmental delays (Vreugdenhil, Lanting, Mulder, Boersma, & Weisglas-Kuperus, 00).

BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS NEUROLOGICAL EFFECTS

Several toxicological studies have been done to elucidate the neurotoxic effects of dioxin in animals. Johansen, et al., performed an experiment using rats that provided evidence that dioxin causes hyperactivity and impulsive behavior similar to behavior in human children with ADHD and that the mechanism involves the inhibition of dopamine synthesis and deficient vesicular storage or release (Johansen, Aase, Meyer, & Sagvolden, 00). Nayyar, et al., found that the transcription factor Sp 1, responsible for growth and differentiation in the developing brain of rats, is developmentally regulated and expressed very highly in actively developing brain regions, and a potential consequence of the transplacental effect of dioxin to the fetus is in utero neurotoxicity (Nayyar, Zawia, & Hood, 00).

. IMMUNOTOXIC EFFECTS

Concern over the potential toxic effects of chemicals on the immune system arises from the critical role of the immune system in maintaining health. Based on studies involving many animal species, scientists have demonstrated the ability of dioxin to impair the immune system by directly reducing the number of B cells (formed in the bone marrow), and T cells (formed in the thymus). As an immune suppressant, dioxin interferes with the bodys ability to fight disease. It is also capable of up regulating the immune system to become hypersensitive, leading to autoimmunity and allergies. The past few decades have seen a marked increase in the numbers of people suffering with allergies and a variety of autoimmune diseases (Williams, 001).

BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS IMMUNOTOXIC EFFECTS

Currently, very little is known about the mechanism by which dioxin causes immunotoxicity in humans. Evidence in mice suggests that the effects on T-cell functions appear to be related to perinatal alterations to precursor stem cells. One study, done using Jurkat T-Cells observed that dioxin caused the up-regulation of the Hrk protein and suggested this might result in T-cell suppression (Park & Lee, 00). In another study, scientists determined that compromised T-cell activation and suppressed type- cytokine production by T-cells may be involved in the impaired humoral immunity associated with TCDD exposure (Nohara, et al., 00).

Another potential mechanism for immunosuppression is the observed reduction in CD4+ T helper cells. Dearstyne and Kerkvliet hypothesized that TCDD affects T cells through the induction or augmentation of apoptosis. Their data suggested that dioxin-induced suppression of CD4+ T-cells involves, in part, increased cell death that may be mediated by Fas/FasL interaction (Dearstyne & Kerkvliet, 00).

Finally, it has been suggested that exposure to dioxin inhibits in vitro functional differentiation and maturation of blood monocyte-derived dendritic cells and that such an effect may contribute to the immunotoxicity of these environmental contaminants due to the major role that dendritic cells play as potent antigen presenting cells in the development of the immune response (Laupeze, et al., 00).

4. REPRODUCTIVE AND DEVELOPMENTAL EFFECTS

Although there is no epidemiological evidence that makes a direct association between exposure to dioxin and effects on human reproduction or development, the evidence suggests that there is such an effect. This is supported by the fact that all four manifestations of developmental toxicity, reduced viability, structural alterations, growth retardation, and functional alterations, have been observed to some degree following presumed exposure to dioxin-related agents (EPA, 000).

In animals, dioxin exposure has been observed to result in both male and female reproductive effects, as well as effects on development. These effects include increased prenatal mortality, functional alterations in learning and sexual behavior, and changes in the development of the reproductive system occur at the lowest exposure levels (EPA, 000).

In the male, dioxin exposure results in the delay of the onset of puberty, reduction in testis weight, abnormal testicular morphology, decrease spermatogenesis, and reduced fertility. There is also an alteration of normal sexual behavior and reproductive function. Males exposed to TCDD during gestation are demasculinized (Poindexter, 1).

In the female, altered cyclicity, reduced ovarian weight, decreased fertility, and shortened reproductive life span are noticed after dioxin exposure. Also, structural alterations of the genitalia and a slight delay in puberty are observed (Poindexter, 1).

BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS

Dioxin's action as a developmental toxicant is probably achieved through interaction with the Ah receptor and occurs by one of four mechanisms. First, TCDD might activate genes that are directly involved in tissue proliferation. Second, TCDD-induced changes in hormone metabolism may lead to tissue proliferation or to altered secretion of a trophic hormone. Third, TCDD-induced changes in the expression of growth factor or hormone receptors may alter the sensitivity of a tissue to proliferative stimuli. Fourth, TCDD-induced toxicity may lead to cell death, followed by regenerative proliferation (EPA, 000).

Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the biological action of dioxin on the development and reproduction of animals. Based upon a study of male rats, Latchoumycandane, et al., suggested that the low doses of TCDD elicit depletion of antioxidant enzymes and increase in the levels of HO and lipid peroxidation differentially in mitochondrial and microsomal fractions of rat testis, concluding that the adverse effect of TCDD on male reproduction could be due to induction of oxidative stress (Latchoumycandane, Chitra, & Mathur, 00). The author of another study speculated that TCDD acts as endocrine disruptor and ovulatory disruptor by decreasing estradiol secretion by follicular cells and progesterone secretion by luteal cells (Gregoraszczuk, 00). Finally, a study of male rats concluded that prenatal TCDD exposure produces demasculinization of male offspring sexual behavior by reducing cortical thickness in the brain and alters the normal pattern of cortical asymmetry (Zareba, et al., 00).

5. CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS

Although there is no conclusive evidence for human carcinogenicity, TCDD is irrefutably an animal carcinogen. Because the exact mechanisms of action are unknown, extrapolation from animal studies to humans is impossible. Before human carcinogenic potential from TCDD can be determined, long-term epidemiologic studies in humans are necessary (Poindexter, 1)

BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS

Much evidence suggests that TCDD does not damage DNA directly through the formation of DNA adducts. Mechanisms have been proposed that support the possibility that TCDD might be indirectly genotoxic, either through the induction of CYP1 enzymes capable of producing oxidative stress or by altering the DNA-damaging potential of some endogenous compounds, including estrogens. Many of these pathways are involved in cell proliferation and differentiation and are consistent with the generally accepted conclusion that TCDD acts as a "tumor promoter" in a multistage fashion (EPA, 000).

There is a scientific consensus that most, if not all, of the biochemical and toxic effects of TCDD require an initial interaction with its receptor, the aryl hydrocarbon (Ah) receptor. The properties of the Ah receptor (AhR) and the mechanisms whereby this receptor regulates gene expression are only beginning to be understood. However, formation of the AhR-TCDD complex is only the first of many steps involved in the production of a biochemical and toxic effect (EPA, 000).

In addition, there have been numerous reports on TCDD-induced modifications of growth factor signaling pathways and cytokines in experimental animals and cell systems. Some of the altered systems include those for epidermal growth factor, transforming growth factor alpha, estrogen, glucocorticoids, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 1-beta, plasminogen inactivating factor-, and gastrin (EPA, 000).

Several recent toxicological studies have begun to detail the molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of cancer in animals. In one study, TCDD induced CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 in hormone-independent prostate cancer cell lines, suggesting that CYP induction should be considered in patients with advanced prostate cancer (Schaufler, Haslmayer, Jager, Pec, & Thalhammer, 00). The results of another study showed the suitability of an explant culture system for examining the inducibility of human pulmonary CYP1A1 and CYP1A (Wei, Caccavale, Weyand, Chen, & Iba, 00) Andreasen, et al., identified a critical residue in AHR proteins that has an important impact on transactivation, enhancer site recognition, and regulation (Andreasen, Tanguay, Peterson, & Heideman, 00). Finally, Wang and Hankinson described the functional involvement of the brahma/SWI-related gene 1 protein in cytochrome P4501A1 transcription mediated by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor complex and implicated the importance of ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling activity on inducible gene expression mediated by AHR/ARNT (Wang & Hankinson, 00).

CONCLUSION

In 14, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released a reassessment of the risks associated with exposure to dioxin and reported a ten-fold increase in the risk of cancer. The announcement initiated much controversy and received much media attention. In light of what I have discussed in this paper, however, the announcement seems very reasonable. The fields of public health science and risk assessment are dynamic and continue to evolve. As scientists acquire more information regarding the biological mechanisms underlying dioxin-associated diseases, they are better able to assess the risks associated with those diseases.

Aside from a few incidences of acute physiological effects, dioxin has not been proven to cause disease in humans. Yet, the wealth of information regarding disease in animals associated with exposure to dioxin is conclusive and undeniable. The fact that scientists have yet to diagnose these effects in humans is probably a reflection of their lack of knowledge of the biological mechanisms underpinning dioxin-related disease.

The common thread linking most, if not all, diseases associated with dioxin in animals is the Ah receptor. Dioxin binds to the Ah receptor and this may trigger subsequent disruption to DNA integrity, hormone balance, cell signaling pathways, and/or cell metabolism, resulting in a variety of effects. Further research should attempt to elucidate the molecular mechanisms associated with the chain of events following dioxin-receptor binding, in order to better understand how dioxin contributes to specific diseases.

REFERENCES

Andreasen EA, Tanguay RL, Peterson RE, Heideman W. (00). Identification of a critical amino acid in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. The journal of biological chemistry, 77 (15), 110-8

Burton JE, Michalek JE, Rahe AJ. (18). Serum dioxin, chloracne, and acne in veterans of Operation Ranch Hand. Archives of Environmental Health, 5 (), 1 (6)

Cranmer M, Louie S, Kennedy RH, Kern PA, Fonseca VA. (000). Exposure to ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is associated with hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance. Diabetes, 4 (5), A6

Dearstyne EA, Kerkvliet NI. (00). Mechanism of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)-induced decrease in anti-CD-activated CD4(+) T cells the roles of apoptosis, Fas, and TNF (16). Toxicology, 170(1-), 1-51

Gregoraszczuk EL. (00). Dioxin exposure and porcine reproductive hormonal activity.

Cad Saude Publica, 18 (), 45-6

Johansen EB, Aase H, Meyer A, Sagvolden T. (00). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviour explained by dysfunctioning reinforcement and extinction processes. Behavioural Brain Research, 10 (1-), 7-45

Kern PA, Fishman RB, Song W, Brown AD, Fonseca V. (00). The effect of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on oxidative enzymes in adipocytes and liver. Toxicology, 171(-), 117-5

Kern PA, Dicker-Brown A, Said ST, Kennedy R, Fonseca VA. (00). The stimulation of tumor necrosis factor and inhibition of glucose transport and lipoprotein lipase in adipose cells by ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Metabolism, 51 (1), 65-8

Latchoumycandane C, Chitra C, Mathur P. (00). Induction of oxidative stress in rat epididymal sperm after exposure to ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo- p-dioxin. Archives of toxicology, 76 (), 11-8

Laupeze B, Amiot L, Sparfel L, Le Ferrec E, Fauchet R, Fardel O. (00). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons affect functional differentiation and maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Journal of Immunology, 168 (6), 65-8

Nayyar T, Zawia NH, Hood DB. (00). Transplacental effects of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on the temporal modulation of Sp1 DNA binding in the developing cerebral cortex and cerebellum. Experimental Toxicological Pathology, 5 (6), 461-8

Nohara K, Fujimaki H, Tsukumo SI, Inouye K, Sone H, Tohyama C. (00). Effects of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on T cell-derived cytokine production in ovalbumin (OVA)-immunized C57Bl/6 mice. Toxicology Letters, 1 (1-), 1-11

Park JH, Lee SW. (00). Up-regulated expression of genes encoding Hrk and IL-R beta subunit by TCDD in vivo and in vitro. Toxicology Letters, 1 (1-), 1-11

Poindexter P. (1). Dioxin toxicity. American Family Physician, 47 (4), 855 (7)

Rier SE. (00). The potential role of exposure to environmental toxicants in the pathophysiology of endometriosis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 55, 01-1; discussion 0-, 6-406

Schaufler K, Haslmayer P, Jager W, Pec M, Thalhammer T. (00). The environmental toxin ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin induces cytochrome P450 activity in high passage PC and DU 145 human prostate cancer cell lines. International journal of molecular medicine, (4), 411-6

Senft AP, Dalton TP, Nebert DW, Genter MB, Hutchinson RJ, Shertzer HG. (00). Dioxin increases reactive oxygen production in mouse liver mitochondria. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 178(1), 15-1

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (000). NCEA web page-Exposure and human health reassessment of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and related compounds. Retrieved April , 00, from http//www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/dioxin

Vreugdenhil HJ, Lanting CI, Mulder PG, Boersma ER, Weisglas-Kuperus N. (00). Effects of prenatal PCB and dioxin background exposure on cognitive and motor abilities in Dutch children at school age. The Journal of pediatrics, 140 (1), 48-56

Wang S, Hankinson O. (00). Functional Involvement of the Brahma/SWI-related Gene 1 Protein in Cytochrome P4501A1 Transcription Mediated by the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Complex. The journal of biological chemistry, 77 (14) 1181-7

Wei C, Caccavale RJ, Weyand EH, Chen S, Iba MM. (00). Induction of CYP1A1 and CYP1A expressions by prototypic and atypical inducers in the human lung. Cancer letters, 178 (1), 5-6

Williams RM. (April, 001). Dioxin a universal toxinPart 1. Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, 158

Williams RM. (May, 001). Dioxin a universal toxinPart . Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, 14

Zareba G, Hojo R, Zareba KM, Watanabe C, Markowski VP, Baggs RB, Weiss B. (00). Sexually dimorphic alterations of brain cortical dominance in rats prenatally exposed to TCDD. Journal of applied toxicology, (), 1-7

REFERENCES

Andreasen EA, Tanguay RL, Peterson RE, Heideman W. (00). Identification of a critical amino acid in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. The journal of biological chemistry, 77 (15), 110-8

Burton JE, Michalek JE, Rahe AJ. (18). Serum dioxin, chloracne, and acne in veterans of Operation Ranch Hand. Archives of Environmental Health, 5 (), 1 (6)

Cranmer M, Louie S, Kennedy RH, Kern PA, Fonseca VA. (000). Exposure to ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is associated with hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance. Diabetes, 4 (5), A6

Dearstyne EA, Kerkvliet NI. (00). Mechanism of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)-induced decrease in anti-CD-activated CD4(+) T cells the roles of apoptosis, Fas, and TNF (16). Toxicology, 170(1-), 1-51

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (000). EPA home page=Exposure and human health reassessment of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and related compounds. Retrieved April , 00, from http//www.epa.gov/ncea pdfs/dioxin

Gregoraszczuk EL. (00). Dioxin exposure and porcine reproductive hormonal activity.

Cad Saude Publica, 18 (), 45-6

Johansen EB, Aase H, Meyer A, Sagvolden T. (00). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviour explained by dysfunctioning reinforcement and extinction processes. Behavioural Brain Research, 10 (1-), 7-45

Kern PA, Fishman RB, Song W, Brown AD, Fonseca V. (00). The effect of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on oxidative enzymes in adipocytes and liver. Toxicology, 171(-), 117-5

Kern PA, Dicker-Brown A, Said ST, Kennedy R, Fonseca VA. (00). The stimulation of tumor necrosis factor and inhibition of glucose transport and lipoprotein lipase in adipose cells by ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Metabolism, 51 (1), 65-8

Latchoumycandane C, Chitra C, Mathur P. (00). Induction of oxidative stress in rat epididymal sperm after exposure to ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo- p-dioxin. Archives of toxicology, 76 (), 11-8

Laupeze B, Amiot L, Sparfel L, Le Ferrec E, Fauchet R, Fardel O. (00). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons affect functional differentiation and maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Journal of Immunology, 168 (6), 65-8

Nayyar T, Zawia NH, Hood DB. (00). Transplacental effects of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on the temporal modulation of Sp1 DNA binding in the developing cerebral cortex and cerebellum. Experimental Toxicological Pathology, 5 (6), 461-8

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Sociological Paradigms

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According to the text, by John Macionis entitled "Sociology" a theoretical paradigm is defined as "a basic image of society that guides thinking and research". Each of the three paradigms is a different approach to sociology. The purpose of this paper is to define and explain the three different Theoretical Paradigms of Sociology written in this chapter.

The first paradigm is the structural-functional paradigm. The text defines this paradigm as "a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability". The first paradigm deals both with social structure and social function and the goal of having a stable and orderly society. The structural-functional paradigm guides us to look at the structure and the function of the social world around us.

Social Structure refers to a normal pattern of behavior. This can include the way we respond to our family, work environment, or school setting. Unfortunately, there are some functions of social structure that are largely unrecognized and unintended. This type of structure gives us the ability to form and develop a shape to our lives. This consists of home life, our jobs and, even in our everyday life.

Social Function refers to the different functions of society. The end result is to function in a way that continues to keep society ongoing. The functional part of our social world keeps our society in existence. Our social world is what keeps our society in existence. Our society could be compared to the food chain. The food chain begins with the smaller animals eating bugs and plants. Then larger animals eat all the smaller animals. The larger animals are then be eaten by human beings. These animals work independently to survive, which allows the food chain to be successful and functional. The social world all works together just as we see it working through the food chain, both independently and collectively.

An illustration for the structural-functional paradigm would be an assembly line in a factory. This, in large, seems very complex and complicated, but, yet when it is broken down it is easier to understand. Each part of the assembly line has its own job or place in the line. Without one part being completed in the correct order the item(s) being prepared would not be completed.

The second paradigm is the social-conflict paradigm. The text defines this paradigm as "a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change". This paradigm compares different inequalities in life, ranging from rich vs. poor, man vs. woman, white vs. black, and so forth.

Social-conflict paradigm looks at the ongoing conflict between different categories. The people who are better off financially tend to protect themselves and the things they have access to. On the other hand, those who may be a little less fortunate try to obtain more for their families.

In today society we see social-conflict everywhere. It can be seen at school, work, and at many different department stores. It is not objective and therefore has little scientific significance. It shows us the inequalities and conflicts between different societies within our community.

Furthermore, this paradigm takes into account the differing factors such as age, gender, race and how they affect the distribution of social level, money and power. An example of this would be comparing people who are slightly overweight, elderly, or a young energetic male for a job position. Which one would you want to work for you?

Is this social-conflict paradigm identifying racism and inequalities? By its name and definition, it does identify conflicts. The above conflicts are very prevalent in our society today. By recognizing conflicts and correcting inequalities maybe we can begin to look at our society like the third paradigm, symbolic-interaction.

The third and last paradigm is the symbolic-interaction paradigm. The text defines this paradigm as "a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals". The symbolic-interaction paradigm can be broken down into a wide range view and a close up view of society and the interaction of people. The wide range view is noted as "macro-level orientation". This is an outlook on society at a distance, gaining aspect of the whole picture. An illustration of this would be how well football teams play and communicate with each other in order to win a game. This requires signaling to each other, watching others closely and listening to the coach. The close up view of society is known as the close up view of society is known as "micro-level orientation". This view looks at our world "through specific situations". An example of this view would be how each individual football player responds to the coach's commands and responds to each player on the team.

Our society is extremely complex and there seems to be a meaning to everything that happens in life. These "meanings" and our behaviors change through time. They change with each individual person. All of us attempt to see things alike, but everyone has different perceptions of life. Even though we all try to shape the reality that others perceive, we all will have a different opinion and definition of life as we see it.

Overall, the structural-functional paradigm, social-conflict paradigm, and the symbolic-interaction paradigm each help explain life in this strange world. Each of these paradigms answer different questions, guide us to understanding our society, and perceiving our world in a different light.

Please note that this sample paper on sociological Paradigms is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on sociological Paradigms, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on sociological Paradigms will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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