What motivates us

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Humanity is always left to wonder. What is it that drives human personality. How come that we have great and successful artists, managers, poets, scientists. And some not very successful and some outright mediocre. What motivates us to do what we do, to purse success, or to pursue happiness. Is it self interest. We associate motivation with human behaviour,meaning, a state of mind that moves us to action. Why am I pursuing a post graduate degree in Business.

Each day brings with it an endless list of decisions to be made. The process of making those decisions is driven, in large part, by the hope of a benefit or the fear of a consequence. Is that benefit our self interest or a we scare of the consequence of inaction or failure. For example many immigrants, like myself, come to America with a future that is so uncertain, they pick up menial jobs right away because they have to survive today, but they attend community college in the night either because they seen education as a veritable vehicle for material success or because they are so fearful of getting stuck in doing menial job.

Literally, every decision we make is filtered through this process. Some psychologists have defined these consequences as needs. Our needs for sustenance, safety, security, belonging, recognition, and a sense of growth and achievement become strong drivers (motivators) of behavior. Everyone, either directly or indirectly motivates every other person. Parents motivate kid to be the best they can. The CEO motivates and influence his managers. The managers motivates his/her troops. Do we get moving by imaginging the benefits of what we are going to do or do we imagine the consequences of not doing it.

So as we attempt to understand motivation and what drives it, we need to appreciate the subtleties that exist in human behavior, and focus our attention on general principles of motivation that have wider application. At least if we can understand some of these principles, we might be in a better position to understand the roles of self interest and fear in human behavior.

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Understanding human behavior is fundamental to understanding how organizations and human society operate and met it set goals and objectives.

Let us explore motivation based on fear and self interest as a veritable avenue to motivation and consequent goal attainment. Fear motivation is the easiest form of motivation. It is based on intimidation. It is founded on "do it or else we can replace you" approach. It is always coupled with threat of loss or punishment for not attaining envisaged goal(s). It leads to situations where "when the cat is away, the mice will play". . Though a measure of achievement could be attained through fear motivation, however, it always result in inner anger and resentment against organization, society or the person who induced it.

Self interest motivation occurs when and environment is created that cause people to want to achieve and excel because their interest is coterminous with the envisage objective. People will work their hardest for something they accept and believe in. When self interest underlines motivation, then the need pose the question "What's in it for me?" became relevant. And this question must be unequivocally answered. People will always want a return on their investment of time, talent, money and efforts.

Think for a second. Is self interest motivation the antihesis of altruism. Does self interest subvert public interest and public good. In 1776, Adam Smith -- the acknowledged father of economics -- published An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.

He stated, and I totally agree

He (the businessman) generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. .. . He intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain.

Smith continues He is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. ... By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. ... It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest.

As Walter E. William stated in one of his papers "Self-Interest Makes the World Go Round" on self interest

Self-interest is the human motivation that is most trustworthy and predictable, and gets the most wonderful things done. I love it when people, in effect, offer, Williams, I really dont give a hoot about you, but if you do this wonderful thing for me, Ill do this wonderful thing for you.

What worries me is when someone tells me, particularly a politician, Theres nothing in it for me, but I really care about the health and education of your daughter. Even more disturbing is when I ask that politician whether he even knows my daughters name and he cant answer.

It is therefore in our self interest to strive to meet this needs, In essence the question that confronts us is.

Self-interest is the human motivation that is most trustworthy and predictable, and gets the most wonderful things done.

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Alexander Fleming

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Who in your opinion was the most important individual in the 0th Century?

Throughout the 0th Century there have been a number of significant personalities who with their attributes have changed the course of history for the benefit or destruction of humankind. Prominent individuals have significantly contributed to society through many fields, ranging from science and technology to politics and human rights. Alexander Fleming was one of the most important scientists in the medical world whose actions changed the course of history through his scientific breakthrough. Through years of sacrificial work, Fleming discovered Penicillin - the first antibiotic in medical history that has saved millions of lives worldwide.

Alexander Flemings extraordinary medical voyage commenced in 101, when his uncle died leaving him an inheritance of £50. This inheritance enabled him to receive medical education and training at St Mary's hospital. Great interest had not led him to the medical field but rather his brother's persuasion to become a doctor as well as an opportunity to leave his tedious job "...he had no burning enthusiasm for medicine but it offered an escape..."1. In 106, after graduating from St Mary's hospital he was greatly influenced by John Freeman to continue and work as an bacteriological research assistant. Initially, Fleming intended to succeed as a surgeon qualifying in 10, however he was extremely committed to research and therefore pursued a career in bacteriology.

The experience of WWI compelled Fleming's continued dedication and pursuit of a miracle drug that would prove essential, in the combat of infectious diseases. He served in France as a Captain in the Army Medical Corps, primarily treating wounded soldiers. Fleming's battlefront experience had proven to him that simple infections were deadly, and soon he realised that there had to be an antibacterial substance that would kill harmful bacteria without harming human tissues. The War had altered his purpose in the bacteriological field, and when he returned to St Mary's hospital he devoted himself in finding an agent to kill the bacteria responsible for infecting wounds.

In 1, through extensive research, he discovered lysozyme, a natural substance found in tears and mucus that unlike antiseptics could fight some bacteria without harming human cells. This remarkable discovery received a cold reception as it proved to insubstantial in killing harmful diseases, however Fleming was certain that lysozyme would benefit mankind. "We shall hear more about lysozyme one day", indeed he proved to be correct as countless scientific papers have been written regarding the significance of lysozyme. Due to this useful discovery, lysozyme has been used in many beneficial ways. The Russians use it for preserving caviar, doctors add it to cow - milk to reproduce the component structure of milk and it is used to treat some intestinal infections as well as some eye infections.

With the lysozyme discovery, came Fleming's realisation that he could find a substance with the strength to kill bacteria but not adversely affect the human body. Thus he embarked on a journey that would eventually lead to a scientific breakthrough.

"I can only suppose that God wanted penicillin, and that this was his reason for creating Alexander Fleming", in 18, his most significant discovery occurred, subsequently altering the course of history forever. Returning from a two week holiday to his laboratories he accidentally discovered the first antibiotic in the medical world,"One sometimes finds what one is not looking for"4, Fleming stated regarding his chance discovery. The fulfilment of his goal, was a result of his persistent efforts and his apparent disorderly habit of not discarding culture plates promptly. On a culture plate of staphylococci a mould (penicillin notatum) introduced by accidental contamination had dissolved the colonies of staphylococci, an example of antibiosis . He found that the broth containing the bacterial substance (penicillin) produced by the mould was unstable and lost it's activity. He concluded that penicillin was non toxic to humans and was sufficient in treating many harmful bacteria.

The discovery of penicillin was one of the most crucial events in the history of medicine, but it took a while before people could comprehend how effective it was in curing diseases. In June 1, Fleming published the first ever report on antibiotics and the benefits of the wonder drug in the British journal for Experimental pathology. These publications were distributed to several editors including pathologist Howard Florey. During that time Flemings accounts failed to rouse other scientists, however is now regarded as one of the most important medical papers written as it marked the beginning for a medical revolution, "the starting point for a clinical revolution that has affected the lives of almost every human on earth'5.

Fleming proved to be a significant figure in the medical world as his discovery would not only save millions of lives but also lead the way for the widespread, globally accepted practice of antibiotic therapy for infectious diseases.

Despite receiving little medical attention,Fleming continued to work with penicillin for some time but lacked the chemical expertise to purify penicillin and develop penicillin into a drug. His work was taken over by a team of chemists and mould specialists, yet they achieved little as several of them died or relocated.

"We owe a lot to Florey, Chain and their co-workers. They did not initiate penicillin but they put it on the map as an effective drug6" Fleming generously stated. Fleming's sacrificial efforts had become the gateway that eventually led Australian, professor of pathology Howard Florey and German Chemist Ernst Chain to the development of penicillin.

Impressed and enthused by Fleming's articles describing the effects of penicillin Florey, Chain and their colleagues set out to work on developing penicillin into a usable drug, "I had come across this paper early in 18 and on reading it I immediately became interested",7 Ernst Chain wrote. By 140, through enhanced chemical techniques the Oxford University Team (Florey, Chain and co-workers) successfully purified and refined penicillin into a wonder drug. Armed with increasing evidence of the remarkable powers of penicillin the Oxford team were unable to engage British drug companies, so American pharmaceutical companies took over and mass produced the world's first antibiotic drug.

Due to Fleming's connections in the British government, a penicillin committee was established to push British drug companies in mass producing penicillin thus introducing the miracle drug to Britain. By D-Day adequate penicillin was available to treat Allied soldiers in need of it.The importance of penicillin was fully recognised as it prevented thousands of deaths during the Second World War. Along with the other antibiotics, it revolutionised healthcare, dramatically reduced mortality rates and significantly contributed to the modern pharmaceutical industry.

Flemings unearthing altered the course of history as deaths once caused by bacterial infections plummeted. Penicillin had positive effects on society through the technological world, the economy and environment. Penicillin possibly helped technology, as great minds lived longer and healthier, therefore were able to create and invent valuable innovations. The economy rapidly grew due to less deaths and population increase, therefore people employed in industries lived longer hence worked longer.

"My only merit is that I did not neglect the observation and that I pursued the subject as a bacteriologist. 8Fleming was honoured for singular contribution that changed the practise of medicine. These awards and accolades came to Fleming in sudden succession, including a knighthood along Florey in 144 and in 145 with Florey and Chain the Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology. Medical centres, research institutes, including a moon crater were named in honour of the beloved 'father' of penicillin, proving his importance to medical science.

Sir Alexander Flemings discovery of penicillin signified the dawn of modern medicine and presented true hope in the battle against infections. Millions of people worldwide owe their lives to Flemings discovery. He has proved to be one of the most important scientific figures in modern history, as he pioneered the universally accepted practise of antibiotic therapy for infectious diseases. Fleming has profoundly secured his place among the elite group of individuals whose contributions have greatly altered the course of 0th Century history.

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Learning Styles Reflection

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Learning Styles Reflection

In my research for Learning Styles, and based upon results I received from a Temperament Test, I found that my temperament type was a Guardian. I learned that most people are classified as Guardians and that they comprise as much as forty to forty-five per cent of the population. Guardians are good managers who keep things running smoothly in their families, schools, churches and other social institutions.

It is no surprise that my temperament type is classified as such, since I have children that I manage every day. Being a good manager requires organization, and I like to keep everything organized. Organization assists me in managing my every day life. Tasks, such as maintaining my planner and scheduling my activities, help me to remember and to follow up on important duties.

The second area of testing concerned Emotional IQs. My results showed that I scored a total of one hundred eighteen, which is categorized as very good. The test findings revealed that I am able to express my feelings clearly in appropriate situations, effectively communicate and interact with others, and deal successfully with stress. I agree with these results since I typically try to express how I feel to others in my interactions with them. This strength will help me build strong relationships with family, friends and co-workers so that I will have the opportunity for a happier and more fulfilling life.

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The last information I researched related to the three learning styles. The first style described was Visual Learners who learn most easily by seeing and are most responsive to diagrams, textbooks with pictures, overheads, videos and handouts. I see myself as this particular learning style since I understand concepts more clearly when I can visualize and obtain a mental picture of the information.

The second learning style described was Auditory Learners who learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening to what others have to say. I would expect these learners to perform well in school because most classes consist of lectures and note taking.

The last learning style pertained to Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners who learn best with a hands on approach. It is likely that these learners will have to work harder to accomplish their goals.

Overall, the results of these tests have provided me with tools for succeeding in my classes and ultimately in the world. Previously, I was not aware of these learning styles. Knowing my particular learning style will enable me to focus on any weaknesses and work toward developing them into strengths.

Please note that this sample paper on Learning Styles Reflection is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Learning Styles Reflection, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paperson Learning Styles Reflection will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Lord of the Flies 2003 Alternate Ending

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LOTF Alternate Ending

It was still dark when Ralph awoke, safe in his bed after another torturous nightmare. His memories of the island were so vivid, watching Simon's death, and Piggy's, over and over until he wept. Ralph crept quietly out of the house, into the quiet neighborhood, the safe neighborhood, his parents had taken him to after the incident, as everyone dubbed it. No one dared mention it in his presence, of course. He might get sad, he might cry. The whole town knew about it, Ralph was sure. He'd been on the news and everything. But no one spoke of it. It was just a hidden trauma left behind closed doors. Ralph had been left behind closed doors too. His parents, who had been relatively open-minded before the incident, were now the most protective on the block. Ralph was to report home right after school, and not to leave the house without permission. If, by some chance, he was invited to a friend's house, he had to be home well before dinner and couldn't even think about spending the night. If Ralph's fame and terrible past weren't enough to scare off the other children at his new school, his overprotective parents did the job. Sometimes Ralph snuck out at night, just to sit on the front porch and watch the stars, breath the fresh air, and enjoy the outside. It was at these times that the memories flooded back, worse than any other. The horror was still very real, even after two years of being safe. The nightmares still came at least once a week, and he still replayed Simon and Piggy's deaths whenever he was alone to think. He wasn't alone very often. Tonight was one of those nights when Ralph needed to relive the horrible memories. It was odd, but he was addicted to the past. He wasn't sure whether it was driving him insane or keeping him sane, but he needed to think about what had hurt him so badly. It hadn't always been like this, of course. In the beginning, he hadn't been able to think about it. He had tried everything to keep himself occupied, keep himself from his thoughts. He hadn't slept for weeks, only catching a nap here and there. But then he started wishing that he would think about it more often. He had truly grown close to some of the boys, Piggy and Simon particularly, and reliving those horrible times kept them alive, in his mind if no place else. The tears began to come, burning Ralph's eyelids as he slammed them shut to block the flow. He had thought that Simon was an angel. Immortal. He was too good to be just another boy on the island, way too good to be in the same group as Jack. And Jack had looked down on Simon for his occasional fainting spells. Simon should have looked down on Jack, should have scorned Jack! He was so much better than Jack.

Ralph closed his eyes and pushed back the memories, pushed them behind closed doors in his mind. He liked thinking about his friends, but he could only remember so much in one night. Memories of Simon, so innocent and pure, a true angel, always hurt the worst. Hey, you're the Island Boy, aren't you? Ralph jumped several inches as he sought the face behind the voice. Nearby was a boy, about his age, with blonde hair and a gentle smile. S-Simon? Ralph stammered in amazement. The boy looked puzzled. No, my name is Gavin. What's your name? Ralph. Gavin smiled. Simon was one of the boys on the island, wasn't he? What happened to him? Ralph had never met someone like Gavin. At least, not someone here. It only took a moment for him to start speaking. He told Gavin all about the island, about Simon and Piggy and Jack and the lot of them. When he had talked himself into exhaustion, he sat back in his chair and waited for the other boy to speak. Gavin took a second to absorb what he had been told. They tried to kill you? he exclaimed. Wow, no wonder no one wants to talk to you about it.. Ralph shrugged. I feel better after talking to you. You know, like someone took all the hurt and memories and stuff and they took it away, or lessened it, or something. Know what I mean? Yeah, actually. When my mom died last year, everyone tried to keep from talking about her in front of me, but when I finally got someone to talk to, it made dealing with it better, Gavin admitted. He gave Ralph a half-smile. It's a lot like being locked up sometimes. With no one to talk to or anything. Everyone wants you to just forget it ever happened, but that's not possible so you keep everything inside but sometimes you just feel like you want to burst, right? Ralph smiled back shakily. Yeah. That's exactly it. He ran a hand through his tousled hair and glanced into the sky where the sun could be seen peeking over the horizon. I'd better go back inside before my folks wake up. They're a bit protective. Obviously, Gavin replied wryly. I'll see you soon? This time Ralph's smile was broad and heart-felt. All right. How 'bout tomorrow, same time? Great. Ralph disappeared into the house to try and catch a few more hours of sleep. When he found himself drifting, he called up one last memory of the island. It wasn't a struggle, like always before. The doors that had once confined the memories had been opened. He was no longer locked behind closed doors.

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Child Abuse

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Cheryl Lyles

Pg.177

Not more than 0 years ago my parents used to slap my sisters and me, or beat us with what ever they could get their hands on. It was not considered abuse back then, it was called discipline. I became interested in this topic because now a day if you spank your child it is considered child abuse. The idea of "child abuse" is controversial. Are children getting it easy these days or are they really being abused?

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There are four major types of abuse, physical, sexual, emotional, and neglect. The one I am going to focus on through out my paper is physical. Physical abuse is defined as any physical injury (ranging from minor bruises to severe fractures to death) as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting (with hand, stick, strap, or other object), burning or otherwise, harming a child (www.calib.com). Why would a parent want to harm their child in such a way? Some people may have no control over their actions. They may be so drunk they do not realize what they are doing. It made me wonder, if a parent does not want their child why don't they just give it up for adoption? In some cases there are things a parent can do if they do not want to keep their child. In some states you can drop your baby off at the hospital, no questions asked, but that is consequently that is not so in all states. Child abuse is a relatively common problem in our society. "In 000-001, 1,85 children reported being physically abused to childline" (www.childline.com).

When I first started my paper I was convinced that children were getting off easy these days. As I did more research on the subject I realized that child abuse is a problem. Child abuse is found in all societies and is almost always a highly protected secret, wherever it takes place. Only recently and in various countries and cultures, has the abuse of a child come to be seen as a major social problem and a main cause of many people's suffering and personal problems. Yet abuse on younger children has a more devastating impact if they are not treated in their childhood.

Abuse usually occurs when a child is unwanted or in single parent households or when a family is suffering from financial problems. Parents who have drug and alcohol problems may also abuse their children. Most children who are abused as a child become abusing parents when they have children. The impact of abuse is far greater than its immediate, visible affects. Survivors of child abuse may be at a greater risk for problems later in life. They may have low academic achievement, drug use, teen pregnancy, and criminal behavior. There are short and long term consequences that can be caused from child abuse, such as brain damage, developmental delays, learning disorders problems forming relationships and aggressive behavior and depression.

After reading the definition of child abuse I could not understand how a parent could throw, shake, stab, choke or burn their child. I understand that parents get mad and frustrated but there is a point when you need to walk a way and let your self cool down. "In the year 000, an average of ,400 children was found to be victims of child abuse each day" (www.calib.com). "At least ,000 children die each year as a result of child abuse" (www.jimhopper.com). "Furthermore, 5 percent of children that were abused were abused by some one they know" (www.childline.com). When the abuser is some one the child knows it can cause more problems for them. If a child is being abuse they can always call a child abuse prevention agency to get help. They can also go online or talk to a teacher or councilor to get help.

They are unsure weather or not they should turn their abuser in because of threats or weather or not some one is going to believe them or not. The fact that a child might have to grow up with the devastation of being abused is horrible. They have a less chance to succeed than someone who was not abused as a child.

The court system has begun to step in and try and help children that are being abused. In most cases that is not enough. They can always try and remove a child from the home but in some cases it might be some one that does not live in the home that is abusing a child. You can always lock an abuser up, but if they did not commit murder they are likely going to get out sooner or later. Who is to say they will not go after the child that got them locked up in the first place?

After doing research on child abuse my views totally changed. I learned that child abuse goes beyond a spanking or a whooping. Furthermore, it is not just a problem in the U.S. but all over the world. Child abuse can be very harmful to a child, not only physically but mentally to. And can affect them for the rest of their lives. It makes me rethink they way I should raise my children when I have them. Just because I used to get whoopings and I turned out fine does not mean that if I whoop my child they are going to be fine to. I hope that one day everyone will come to realize that child can not protect themselves and we will do everything we can to protect them.

WORKS CITED

Jim Hopper "Child Abuse Statistic, Research, and Resources"

http//www.jimhoppper.com/abstats

"What is Child Abuse"

http//www.calib.com/nccanch/prevention/overview.child

"What is Child Abuse"

http//www.childline.org.uk/Childabuse.asp

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Journeys

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8/1/0

ENG 111-6

Narrative

Journeys

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John and I had a four year courtship. Young and naïve, I had no idea or experience in how a healthy relationship should be. I enjoyed the sense of commitment but soon realized that I was the only party practicing it. Days at a time, John would be gone leaving me to deal with my pregnancy alone.

I began rethinking the meaning of love, honesty and commitment. After a couple of sleepless nights, I was more than certain than I had been about anything in my life. There was nothing more for me to do but inform the person most affected by my decision, my finance and first love, John Smith.

I moved a few steps, taking a deep sigh and picked up the phone pressing the speed button for John. A bubbly young female voice said, "Hello." I paused for a moment and responded, "Can you put John on the phone?" She replied "I'll be happy to." John answered the phone with a voice filled with guilt. John said, "Honey, I'm on my way home, Rita from work, well she needed a ride home." A few seconds of silence passed before "I said, I can't do this anymore." "Can't do what?" Kim darling… what are you talking about? "I can't continue this dysfunctional relationship, I'm leaving."

My voice was cool and controlled. "What!" he screamed. His mind seemed to be closing down, refusing to comprehend my words."John, I'm going to say this for the last time then I'm hanging up the phone, it's over between you and me." "Why, what about the engagement and our baby?" John asked faintly. The tone of his voice had changed in seconds from forceful to pleading. "John you know why," I said firmly. I felt in my heart he knew exactly why.

I filled two large suitcases with what could fit and packed my 17 Toyota Corolla and headed for serenity. Preparing for motherhood as a single mother became my challenge. I had no energy left to give to the abusive relationship with John. As I walked out of the house, I felt that a huge weight was lifted off of my chest. I vowed never to return.

Getting an apartment, going to more doctor's appointments, and Lamaze classes filled my days. My due date was approaching rapidly which made things a little scary yet exciting. I read all the parenting books I could find and still felt unprepared. I prayed every night that everything would be okay.

I remember the afternoon being hot and humid in June. I gave birth to a seven pound baby boy. The sounds of his first cry were the most serene sounds I had ever heard. I did it! I made the right choice to search for peace and sanity. I found the true meaning of love and learned how nurturing could can be.

Although my journeys were difficult lessons, I feel that faith, determination and self reliance have become positive tools in navigating through life obstacles.

Please note that this sample paper on journeys is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on journeys, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research paperson journeys will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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The history of Malaria in Temperate europe

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The History of Malaria in Temperate Europe

In recent times, the idea that malaria is and always has been strictly a tropical disease has become a common belief. In other words, there exists a belief that malaria has never been and could never be a problem in countries in temperate climate zones like the nations of Europe and Canada. The basis of this belief lies in the assumption that malaria is a disease whose range and demographics are determined predominantly by climate and temperature. Specifically that malaria requires temperatures in excess of those found in the Northern temperate regions. This assertion is however completely inaccurate. In fact, malaria has been found as far north as the city of Archangel located in the Arctic circle

Malaria has been a scourge of Europe practically since the beginnings of European civilizations. It should be noted here that it is difficult to know quantitatively the exact history and epidemiology of malaria in ancient Europe (or indeed any other disease). The historical records of most time periods with regards to dangerous diseases and their effects tend to be rather incomplete. Compounding this difficulty was the fact that early European physicians due to their lack of knowledge of modern medicine tended to misdiagnose the cause of many diseases.

Indeed, the discovery of the cause malaria (Plasmodium malariae)only occurred in the year 1880 when Alphonse Laveran observed sporozoites of this parasite present in a sample of blood from a patient suffering from intermittent fever. In spite of these difficulties, medical historians have been able to find descriptions of diseases in history that very closely match those of the pathology of present-day strains of malaria.

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L. W. Hackett observes that in ancient Greece, "Hippocrates in the fifth century B.C. was acquainted with the swellings of the spleen among inhabitants of marshy regions". Hackett also notes that "the cult of the Fever Goddess in Rome was extremely old". De Zulueta and Bruce-Chawatt offer further proof of the existence of malaria in Rome when they note that the Roman Varro "emphasized that a house should be built in a high and well ventilated place so that small 'bestiole' that are bred nearby should be blown away" In fact, the presence of malaria in Italy was a fact of life until the year 170 whereby the World Health Organization declared that Italy was finally free of malaria.

European nations that were farther north than the Mediterranean peninsula unfortunately were not spared the depredations of the various Plasmodium species and all the major nations of Europe had regions within their national boundaries that were endemic to malaria. For instance, certain parts of England suffered the presence of 'marsh fevers' and 'agues' such that areas like Essex near saline marshes were studiously avoided by all who could afford to and noted for their unhealthiness. It is the purpose of this paper to explore the extent of malaria in Europe (including the United Kingdom) and identify the factors that influenced its eventual decline and disappearance from the Western world that began in some parts of Europe as early as the 17th century.

If anything, the above stated example of malaria finding its way to the city of Archangel amply demonstrates the inadequacy of the idea that climate alone influences where malarial parasites can take root. Nonetheless, it is still true that as of 175, Europe was declared free of malaria. It is therefore necessary to search for other alternative factors that will explain the notable absence of a disease that is otherwise rampant in many parts of the world, particularly the third world. Many medical historians recognizing the weaknesses of the 'climate' hypothesis have claimed that the decline of malaria in Europe is actually more closely related to the rapid and deep changes that European society went through as it changed from a subsistence-agrarian society to a modern industrial state society from the 17th century to the present.

For instance, during this time period, European society began to develop new and more productive methods of agriculture such as the implementation of crop rotation which ended the need of European farmers to let at least one third of their fields go fallow at any given time. This coincided with the discovery of root plants that in addition to replenishing the soil with nitrogen and other nutrients were also made good feed for livestock during the winter months when grazing was difficult or impossible. It was this development that made viable for the first time, the production of livestock beyond the subsistence level. Prior to this, farmers were unable to produce the numbers of livestock that would have made separate housing for their beasts necessary and more often than not animals resided in close proximity with their masters.

The creation of separate housing for livestock and farmers is one of the factors that has been correlated to the decline of malaria in Europe. Hackett notes that stables are attractive environments to Anopheles maculipennis mosquitoes, the most important vector of malaria in the Dombes and Camarque areas of France since these mosquitoes tended "to frequent places which offer a nightly food supply and which are dark, humid, warm and relatively free from draughts." As well, in Switzerland, it has been noted that the "rise of cattle" and "greater stabling in winter" contributed to the decline of malaria that nation. Germany also experienced a decrease in the 1th century that coincided with the "draining of marshes and better agricultural practices." The history of malaria in Belgium also reflects this trend of the incidence of malaria infection to decline as agricultural practices improved. The case of malaria in England also supports this correlation as by the early twentieth century, "dark, ill-ventilated, stables, byres and pigsties or old-fashioned cottages with low roofs, ribboned with cobwebs, were teeming with mosquitoes in the English marshes but they were rarely collected from well-ventilated 'modern' human habitations." In effect the division of habitations of livestock and humans into physically separated locations combined with trend of human habitations that were brighter and better ventilated (and hence less hospitable to mosquitoes of the Anopheles varieties) more than likely affected the rates of infection in malaria endemic zones.

Another factor closely related to the development of agriculture in Europe that had a tremendous effect upon the distribution of malaria in Europe was the draining of marshes and the creation of dykes to claim new arable land for development. It was noted by most of the inhabitants of England in the time of Daniel Dafoe (author of Robinson Crusoe) that it was far more likely to get seriously ill in certain areas of the country. In particular, there existed a "contrast between the healthy 'airs' and 'waters' of some coastal places (in England), especially those with chalk landscapes, and the unhealthiness of marshy coastal and estuarine localities." The unhealthiness of saline marsh areas in England was so pronounced that "vicars rarely lived their marshland parishes, so fearful were they of the 'agues' and 'marsh fevers'." As it happens, saline marshes and estuarine areas are the preferred breeding areas of Anopheles Atroparvus, the principal vector of malaria in England. Furthermore, A. atroparvus is still present in England and its current distribution matches very closely the regions of England formerly associated with endemic 'marsh fever'. It therefore stands to reason that the draining of marshes that were 'brackish' in nature would have affected the mortality and morbidity rates of endemic malaria those areas near the aforementioned marshes. The historian Mary Dobson corroborated this observation when she noted that "Whitley concluded that the decline of malaria was the result 'in very nearly every case' of one cause - improved land drainage." The positive affects of the removal of breeding habitat of the Anopheles mosquito upon the rates of malaria was also demonstrated in Italy during the 10s. In this time period, "the reclamation of 00,000 acres of marshland in the depopulated Pontine marshes that allowed for the settlement of nearly 100,000 people." Not all of the efforts of humankind to alter the environment have been as successful in terms of the reduction of malaria. For example, Bruce-Chawatt and de Zulueta observe that in 1th century France, the town of Narbonne became malarious when it cut down the neighboring forests, turning the adjacent salt lakes into marshes. Mary Dobson also notes that while marshlands in the 1th and early 14th centuries were home to large populations of people, by the 16th century, these areas became highly malarious. Dobson offers the possible explanation that the inning of the marshes that occurred during this period may have created ideal breeding habitats for Anopheles. mosquitoes and that "many coastal regions of Essex and Kent, once washed by the tides, found themselves inned from the sea and covered in pools of stagnant water."

Another very important change that occurred in western society was the rise of public health initiatives. Irrespective of the effectiveness of the development of new agricultural techniques and its associated factors, malaria remained a problem in Europe, although it was a diminished problem . It was not until nations began to invest in public health initiatives that malaria truly disappeared from the continent of Europe. The idea of 'public health' is relatively new (in a historical sense) and Dobson notes that "by the late eighteenth century, there was a move towards environmental improvements in many spheres and in diverse rural and urban localities, as a way of improving the healthiness of the people." Perhaps one of the first public health initiatives with regards to malaria was the making available of quinine to most people. Prior to this event, quinine due to its high cost was only available to the small percentage of the population that could afford it. In England for example, the cost of quinine "fell from about £1 per drachm in the 1840s to 8s 6d an ounce by 1875 and to less than 10d an ounce in the late nineteenth century". While the increase of use of quinine to treat malaria would not have affected the demographics of the disease, the widespread use of quinine would have certainly reduced the pathology and more debilitating effects of the disease. It can be said then that quinine was a factor in the amelioration of malaria in Europe that occurred from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Indeed prior to this reduction in cost of quinine, "an aggressive smuggling operation developed, reminiscent of that which is still present in the world today for cocaine." Incidentally, the effectiveness of quinine in treating 'marsh fevers and agues' is in fact proof that malaria existed in Europe since quinine is noted for its ability to treat malaria and malaria alone.

The most important type of public health initiatives vis-a-vis the disappearance of malaria from the continent of Europe however only became prevalent by the early twentieth century. It was during this time that 'anti-malarial' and malaria 'control' programs began to be developed. Paul Reiter is not incorrect when he observes that in Europe "it was not until the advent of DDT after World War II, that a concerted effort could be made to eradicate disease from the entire continent." For example, the nationwide campaign that Romania embarked upon to control the spread of malaria in 14, ended up being so successful that the program was converted into a malaria eradication program in 155 (see Table 1). The same kind ofanti-malarial campaign initiated in the Netherlands in the year 147 also resulted in a complete eradication of indigenous malaria (see Table ). Spain is another country that owes its malaria free status to the dedicated work of health authorities, among their accomplishments is "the establishment of 0 antimalaria dispensaries". Measures like this and the overall improvement of the quality of life of the citizens of Spain after the end of the Second World War caused the disappearance of malaria in Spain (see Table ). This is in contrast to the Netherlands and Romania, as both of these European nations had to employ direct antimalarial programs to remove endemic malaria from their midst.

It is important to note that even before malaria was expelled from the European continent, it had been on the decline in terms of both pathology and as a threat to public health in most European nations. In the 1860s the English Medical Officer of Health George Whitley surveyed the parishes in those localities that had previously suffered from the 'ague' and despite the fact that the 'ague still existed in the localities surveyed, it was noted that the 'ague' of 1864 was nowhere near as dangerous as it had been in the past. There are several possible causes of this pattern that have been noted.

One of the possible causes of the amelioration of the effects of malaria demonstrated in England was related to the fact that the frequency of mosquito bites might have been reduced due to the reduction of mosquito breeding habitat caused by the draining of salt marshes, the partitioning of humans and livestock into separate quarters and the overall decrease in population that occurred in rural regions as the Industrial Revolution drew increasing numbers of rural inhabitants to the cities to work in the factories that were developing there. All of these factors would have decreased the chances of Anopheles mosquitoes successfully transmitting the disease to new hosts and therefore the cycle of infection would have became harder to maintain.

It also has been noted that a reduction in the frequency of mosquitoes taking blood meals from the resident human population would have also decreased the odds of a patient suffering "repeated and successive attacks or a continuous invasion of mixed parasites, especially if a number of different species and strains of parasite had been formerly prevalent in the English marshes" and therefore the disease would be much less pathogenic to the host. The availability of quinine described above would have also contributed to this effect.

Another factor that may have influenced the seriousness of malaria (again as documented in England) was also related to the demographics of the more isolated malarious regions of England. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the populations of certain marsh areas in England showed a decrease in the amount of newcomers and thereafter population numbers were maintained by positive birth rates, giving the area a newfound stability. This could be a significant development as patients of malaria often can develop partial immunity. In the absence of newcomers constantly bringing new strains of malaria, it might have been possible for the inhabitants of these areas to have developed a form of 'community immunity' which would have contributed greatly to the reduction of malaria as a serious disease in these areas.

A final factor that may have reduced the pathogenicity of malaria might be related to the fact that the people in Europe were becoming more healthy. European society was becoming aware of the need for clean drinking water, proper nutrition, better housing, improved hygiene and many other conditions necessary to maintain personal health. The improvement of diet and nutrition could have enabled sufferers of malaria to better cope with their infections. It should be noted however that there some debate on the issue of the effect of nutrition on the course of an infection of malaria.

In conclusion, while climate is an important factor in determining the geographic range and type of malaria that will be present in any given area, it is a fallacy to assume that just because malaria is best suited to tropical environments, it has always been strictly a tropical disease. This paper has demonstrated that malaria, far from being a stranger to the temperate shores of Europe, has instead been present in Europe from the times of antiquity. It has only been very recently that Europe has been declared malaria free. Furthermore, since the climate of Europe has been relatively constant for the past 00 years, it is obvious that other factors than the overall climate were at work reducing the effect and presence of malaria in Europe. This paper notes that socio-economic factors like changing agricultural techniques, demographics of populations and changing social attitudes towards issues like public health have had a far greater influence upon the epidemiology of malaria in Europe. The implications of this are far reaching. If the epidemiology of Europe has been influenced in a positive way by the changing of Western society, it is possible to infer that malaria might be less of medical problem and more of a social problem. If malaria is indeed a social problem, then the current efforts to curb malaria's depredations in much of the third world might be doomed to failure if the issues of poverty and underdevelopment in the nations of the third world are not attended to as well. The paper also serves to remind the reader that until very recently, nations in temperate regions had to contend with endemic malaria. Therefore climate is not a barrier to malaria and it should not be assumed that malaria can never again return to scourge nations that lie in the temperate parts of the earth.

Table 1. The number of cases of malaria in Romania during the period 148-177.

YearNumber of casesYear Number of cases

1488,181616

14,616418

1505,461651

1514,0816610

1510,4416716

15,10168

1540164

155817010

15641716

1571641717

158781717

1518417418

160817510

16181767

1617717

Note Since 16 all cases of malaria were either relapses of previous infections or accidentally induced by blood transfusion from infected donors or imported from abroad. The last case of indigenous malaria was recorded in 16.

Table . Cases of malaria in the Netherlands from 146 to178.

YearNumber of casesIndigenous cases YearNumber of cases

14615,0015,00164

1475,405,1701661

1484,5154,100164

146004016516

1508475166

1514101676

1516511684

1511516

15411801701

1551041716

1561117171

157100.17

1581041747

158117554

1600017676

16171177107

1640178108

16610

Note During the period 146-155 cases of indigenous and introduced malaria were classified separately. For the period 156-16 these cases are included in the totals; the bulk of the latter is composed of imported cases. From 16 onwards all cases of malaria were imported from abroad.

Table . Morbidity and mortality from malaria in Spain (16-178).

Year Number of cases notifiedNumber of deathsYearNumber of cases notifiedNumber of deaths

164,757168158610

1761,54171501

1881,45816080

185,5068161150

14010,487561680

1415,51,781650

1476,7741,78116410

1446,751,0716510

14440,6516660

145105,650116710

146,557516840

14786,764188160

14864,81641700

144,87084171780

15018,7071710

15114,54561740

15,4754817411

155,817500

154,7761760

155,006177570

1561,08161780

15746414

Note The last indigenous cases of malaria in Spain were reported in 16. Since then all cases were imported from overseas, with the exception of 171 when over 54 cases of P. vivax malaria occurred as a result of accidental outbreak of transfusion malaria from a blood bank, where overseas donors were involved.

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