Elementary Education Mathematics Textbook analysis

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Textbook Analysis

Mathematical Tools

Mathematical tools are objects or ideas that teachers utilize to demonstrate and teach concepts in all areas of math. These mathematical tools include hands-on activities such as games, worksheets, additional resources, literature. Textbooks should be evaluated on how they use mathematical tools in each chapter and lesson. Some tools are essential when teaching a lesson out of the textbook and others are optional or for use by the teacher only. It is important to evaluate how well the students use the tools to understand mathematical concepts. And lastly it is important that the text uses a variety of tools to assess one single concept.

In the Silver Burdett Ginn Mathematics textbooks we examined probability and statistics. There are many mathematical tools that are essential in teaching these lessons. The first is Discussion Starters (Grade 4, Chapter 4, pg 1). The textbook gives you exactly five straight forward questions along with their answers. The textbook also gives you specific things to say and do. For example, each lesson has a Problem of the Day that you can write on the board and encourages one right answer. In part of the chapter you can make math connections to the real world with Data Analysis and Probability (Grade 4, Chapter 4, pg. 15). In both the 4th and 5th grade books the chapters include worksheets that help the students practice, re-teach or extend the lesson. Each worksheet has right or wrong answers and gives the answers in the manual. Each chapter also has a chapter test that can simply be copied and given out. All of these mathematical tools are essential for teaching using these textbooks. However there are some tools that are optional and those help individualize each lesson. The Gifted and Talented section gives activities and projects that can help maximize your students learning and keep them busy if they finish early (Grade 4, Chapter 4, pg. 16). Using Technology sections are useful if you have access to computers because they offer more exciting ways to develop multiplication or other problems. At the end of the lessons there are Project Links that are optional if there is more time or a need for extra emphasis (Grade 5, Chapter , pg. 101). There are checkpoints in the middle of each chapter that stop and review what they students have learned. A Vocabulary Review is offered to teachers only if they wish to review the terms before the students begin with the checkpoint (Grade 5, Chapter pg. 104). Also assessment ideas are included at these checkpoints and they include ideas that the students can write about in their journals.

In Silver Burdett Ginn, the tools help emphasize what they have learned but they encourage convergent thinking. The worksheets and tests all have been written and the answers are straight forward. There were very few times where the tools encouraged individuality and creative thinking. There was a variety of tools used in these textbooks including CD-rom, vocabulary reviews and project link ideas. However they still all encouraged one answer and convergent thinking.

In the Investigations Curriculum Unit textbooks we also examined lessons on probability and statistics. The mathematical tools we found in these books differed greatly from Silver Burdett Ginn in many ways. The first way was that the actual materials were less straight forward and more inquiry based. The worksheets included in the back of the book encouraged many answers and were very blank compared to the others. The actual lessons used words like have the students label, brainstorm, relate, distinguish, suggest, and associate. These words all have to do with more thinking and discussing ideas instead of being told the right answer and actual definition. The students came up with their own definition of probability by making a timeline with impossible, unlikely and possible as their points. The students would then discuss and link ideas to each other which encouraged communication and investigation (Grade 5, Session 1, pg. 4). Each lesson gives you questions to ask that lead the students in many different directions. Each question does not lead to one specific answer or activity. For example, the class decides which are the more logical events for the timeline and where to place each event. The teacher is told to list all the suggestions the children give which encourages equal praise for each student's response. These lessons set up a safe environment for the students to participate in without getting cut down or overly praised. One lesson encourages teachers to use math along the course of a day instead of limiting it during the assigned math hour. The final project also gives the students the chance to carry out an extended investigation of data from questions. (Grade 4, sessions 1 and , pg. 5)

In Investigations, the textbook gives Teacher Notes that give heads up for problems or ways to maximize the lessons. The textbook also gives a Dialogue Box in order to help students refine their questions without giving them too much guidance (Grade 4, sessions 1 and , pg. 58). Overall, The Investigations series helps teachers enhance an inquiry based classroom. The activities and lessons encourage divergent thinking and reasoning. Each lesson truly is an investigation of math and prepare students to think on their own and represent data in several ways.

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Dioxin: Biological Toxicity

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Dioxin is considered to be one of the most toxic substances known to the human race. The history of dioxin in the United States is filled with controversy and debate. Questions regarding whether dioxin causes cancer, as well as myriad other diseases, and the nature of the risk associated with these diseases abound in the media and literature. A wealth of evidence has shown that dioxin causes carcinogenic, neurological, reproductive, developmental, physiological, and immunotoxic effects in various animal models, yet very little evidence exists to implicate dioxin as a cause of human disease. Scientists currently lack important information pertaining to the biological mechanisms of dioxin's actions and consequently cannot properly assess the chemical's health risks. In this paper, I will summarize the biological effects that have been shown to result dioxin exposure and discuss current views regarding the biological mechanisms responsible for these effects.

BACKGROUND

Dioxins represent a family of 75 toxic chemicals, none of which occur naturally, nor have they been intentionally produced for any useful purpose. Dioxins are byproducts of the modern industrial age. ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is the most thoroughly studied and the most toxic of the 75 dioxin isomers. As a pure solid, TCDD is colorless, odorless, lipid-soluble and only sparingly soluble in water (Williams, 001).

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TCDD is created by solid and hazardous waste incinerators, the manufacture of chlorine bleached paper, the combustion of wood in the presence of chlorine, cement kilns, metal smelting, burning chlorinated benzenes and biphenols (PCBs), and the manufacture of certain pesticides and herbicides (,4,5-T) (Williams, 001).

Dioxin bioaccumulates in adipose tissue and can be found in most people. Because TCDD bioaccumulates in the food chain, the major route of human exposure is through the ingestion of food containing TCDD, especially fish, meat and dairy products. It has been estimated that food accounts for 8 percent of total adult exposures (Poindexter, 1).

Dioxin has received much media attention in the past few decades and thus has become a public concern. Dioxin has a reputation of being extremely toxic, which is based primarily on tests performed on guinea pigs, the most dioxin-sensitive mammalian species. By comparison, the hamster is 5,000 to 10,000 times more resistant in similar toxicity tests (Poindexter, 1).

1. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Dioxin is toxic to some animal species, but the evidence for corresponding toxicity in humans has not been established. No deaths due to systemic dioxin toxicity in humans have been reported. Only two clinical effects have been repeatedly observed in exposed populations chloracne and transient hepatic effects. Epidemiological evidence suggests that dioxin may play a role in heart disease, hypothyroidism, and diabetes. (Williams, 001).

Chloracne

Chloracne is the only overt effect of dioxin exposure in human populations Acneiform lesions may appear as early as one to three weeks after dioxin exposure. The lesions are small, pale yellow cysts, which are the result of altered differentiation of acinar sebaceous basal cells into keratinocytes. The lesions primarily involve the face, especially the periorbital, temporal and malar areas, as well as the upper body (Poindexter, 1).

A genetic basis for the dermal responses to dioxin has been defined in selected laboratory animals. In experiments performed on mice, scientists observed strain-specific differences in the cutaneous reactions of haired and hairless mice to the topical application of dioxin (Joseph, Burton, Michalek, & Alton, 18).

Hepatic Effects

Although hepatotoxicity from TCDD exposure has been observed in a variety of animal species, there is no evidence that TCDD causes long-term hepatotoxicity in humans. Some studies have shown a transient increase in hepatic enzyme levels without clinical disease. Studies involving victims of the Seveso, Italy and Times Beach, Mo. incidents suggested subclinical hepatic effects (Poindexter, 1).

Animal studies have revealed potential mechanisms for dioxin's action upon the liver. One toxicology study, using rats, showed that dioxin may cause changes in enzymes of oxidated stress in the liver resulting in hepatic effects (Kern, Fishman, Song, Brown, & Fonseca, 00) Another experiment, performed on mice, showed that dioxin increases mitochondrial respiration-dependent reactive oxygen production, which may play an important role in dioxin-induced toxicity and disease (Seneft, et al., 00).

Heart Disease

A study involving 1,18 German workers in a pesticide factory found a dose-dependent relationship to deaths from heart disease, as well as cancer, among workers exposed to dioxin. Exposed workers showed an increase in death due to ischemic heart disease, a narrowing of the arteries, causing a reduction of blood flow resulting in heart attack (Williams, 001).

Thyroid

Dioxin is structurally similar to the thyroid hormone. Some of its toxic effects resemble hypothyroidism, a reduced functioning of the thyroid gland. Deficiencies of thyroid hormone during fetal life or early infancy can lead to mental impairment, hearing loss, and speech problems. Even when IQs measure in the normal range, thyroid deficiency can result in language comprehension problems, impaired learning and memory, and hyperactive behavior (Williams, 001).

Diabetes

Dioxin alters glucose tolerance and interferes with the hormone, insulin. A ten-year follow-up study of 55 exposed workers found half to be diabetic or with abnormal glucose tolerance tests, an early sign of diabetes. The risk of diabetes appears to rise 1% for every 100 picogram dioxin/gram (pg/g) of lipid in the blood (Williams, 001).

Toxicology studies using animal models also support a link between dioxin and diabetes. Cranmer, et al., found that high blood dioxin levels may result in insulin resistance (Cranmer, Louie, Kennedy, Kern, & Fonseca, 000). Kern, et al., found that dioxin stimulated tumor necrosis factor and inhibited glucose transport and lipoprotein lipase in adipose cells, providing a possible physiologic mechanism for epidemiologic studies that link dioxin to diabetes (Kern, Dicker-Brown, Said, Kennedy, & Fonseca, 00).

BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Dioxin may interfere with normal endocrine function by disrupting natural hormones. Estrogen, glucocorticoid, prolactin, insulin, gastrin, melatonin, and other hormones are affected by dioxin, either by its activity on the hormone or receptor. Further studies are needed to determine the exact mechanisms of disruption (EPA, 000).

The available data indicates an involvement of dioxin in processes regulating cellular differentiation and proliferation, as well as those controlling endocrine homeostasis. Physiological effects related to dioxin exposure are presumed to be mediated through interaction with a specific protein called the Ah receptor. This process involves the binding of TCDD to the receptor, followed by the binding of the receptor-ligand complex to DNA recognition sites. This leads to the expression of specific genes and translation of their protein products, which then mediate their biological effects. Differences in toxicity may result from countless variations related to this chain of events (EPA, 000).

. NEUROLOGICAL EFFECTS

Although dioxins have produced neurotoxic results in laboratory animals, data from human studies have been inconsistent and inconclusive. In one epidemiological study, peripheral nervous system involvement was studied six years after the Seveso accident in 15 persons with chloracne. No case of peripheral neuropathy was found; however, subclinical peripheral nerve impairment was reported in 16 persons (EPA, 000) In another human study involving Dutch children, it was found that neurotoxic effects of prenatal dioxin exposure may persist into school age, resulting in subtle cognitive and motor developmental delays (Vreugdenhil, Lanting, Mulder, Boersma, & Weisglas-Kuperus, 00).

BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS NEUROLOGICAL EFFECTS

Several toxicological studies have been done to elucidate the neurotoxic effects of dioxin in animals. Johansen, et al., performed an experiment using rats that provided evidence that dioxin causes hyperactivity and impulsive behavior similar to behavior in human children with ADHD and that the mechanism involves the inhibition of dopamine synthesis and deficient vesicular storage or release (Johansen, Aase, Meyer, & Sagvolden, 00). Nayyar, et al., found that the transcription factor Sp 1, responsible for growth and differentiation in the developing brain of rats, is developmentally regulated and expressed very highly in actively developing brain regions, and a potential consequence of the transplacental effect of dioxin to the fetus is in utero neurotoxicity (Nayyar, Zawia, & Hood, 00).

. IMMUNOTOXIC EFFECTS

Concern over the potential toxic effects of chemicals on the immune system arises from the critical role of the immune system in maintaining health. Based on studies involving many animal species, scientists have demonstrated the ability of dioxin to impair the immune system by directly reducing the number of B cells (formed in the bone marrow), and T cells (formed in the thymus). As an immune suppressant, dioxin interferes with the bodys ability to fight disease. It is also capable of up regulating the immune system to become hypersensitive, leading to autoimmunity and allergies. The past few decades have seen a marked increase in the numbers of people suffering with allergies and a variety of autoimmune diseases (Williams, 001).

BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS IMMUNOTOXIC EFFECTS

Currently, very little is known about the mechanism by which dioxin causes immunotoxicity in humans. Evidence in mice suggests that the effects on T-cell functions appear to be related to perinatal alterations to precursor stem cells. One study, done using Jurkat T-Cells observed that dioxin caused the up-regulation of the Hrk protein and suggested this might result in T-cell suppression (Park & Lee, 00). In another study, scientists determined that compromised T-cell activation and suppressed type- cytokine production by T-cells may be involved in the impaired humoral immunity associated with TCDD exposure (Nohara, et al., 00).

Another potential mechanism for immunosuppression is the observed reduction in CD4+ T helper cells. Dearstyne and Kerkvliet hypothesized that TCDD affects T cells through the induction or augmentation of apoptosis. Their data suggested that dioxin-induced suppression of CD4+ T-cells involves, in part, increased cell death that may be mediated by Fas/FasL interaction (Dearstyne & Kerkvliet, 00).

Finally, it has been suggested that exposure to dioxin inhibits in vitro functional differentiation and maturation of blood monocyte-derived dendritic cells and that such an effect may contribute to the immunotoxicity of these environmental contaminants due to the major role that dendritic cells play as potent antigen presenting cells in the development of the immune response (Laupeze, et al., 00).

4. REPRODUCTIVE AND DEVELOPMENTAL EFFECTS

Although there is no epidemiological evidence that makes a direct association between exposure to dioxin and effects on human reproduction or development, the evidence suggests that there is such an effect. This is supported by the fact that all four manifestations of developmental toxicity, reduced viability, structural alterations, growth retardation, and functional alterations, have been observed to some degree following presumed exposure to dioxin-related agents (EPA, 000).

In animals, dioxin exposure has been observed to result in both male and female reproductive effects, as well as effects on development. These effects include increased prenatal mortality, functional alterations in learning and sexual behavior, and changes in the development of the reproductive system occur at the lowest exposure levels (EPA, 000).

In the male, dioxin exposure results in the delay of the onset of puberty, reduction in testis weight, abnormal testicular morphology, decrease spermatogenesis, and reduced fertility. There is also an alteration of normal sexual behavior and reproductive function. Males exposed to TCDD during gestation are demasculinized (Poindexter, 1).

In the female, altered cyclicity, reduced ovarian weight, decreased fertility, and shortened reproductive life span are noticed after dioxin exposure. Also, structural alterations of the genitalia and a slight delay in puberty are observed (Poindexter, 1).

BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS

Dioxin's action as a developmental toxicant is probably achieved through interaction with the Ah receptor and occurs by one of four mechanisms. First, TCDD might activate genes that are directly involved in tissue proliferation. Second, TCDD-induced changes in hormone metabolism may lead to tissue proliferation or to altered secretion of a trophic hormone. Third, TCDD-induced changes in the expression of growth factor or hormone receptors may alter the sensitivity of a tissue to proliferative stimuli. Fourth, TCDD-induced toxicity may lead to cell death, followed by regenerative proliferation (EPA, 000).

Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the biological action of dioxin on the development and reproduction of animals. Based upon a study of male rats, Latchoumycandane, et al., suggested that the low doses of TCDD elicit depletion of antioxidant enzymes and increase in the levels of HO and lipid peroxidation differentially in mitochondrial and microsomal fractions of rat testis, concluding that the adverse effect of TCDD on male reproduction could be due to induction of oxidative stress (Latchoumycandane, Chitra, & Mathur, 00). The author of another study speculated that TCDD acts as endocrine disruptor and ovulatory disruptor by decreasing estradiol secretion by follicular cells and progesterone secretion by luteal cells (Gregoraszczuk, 00). Finally, a study of male rats concluded that prenatal TCDD exposure produces demasculinization of male offspring sexual behavior by reducing cortical thickness in the brain and alters the normal pattern of cortical asymmetry (Zareba, et al., 00).

5. CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS

Although there is no conclusive evidence for human carcinogenicity, TCDD is irrefutably an animal carcinogen. Because the exact mechanisms of action are unknown, extrapolation from animal studies to humans is impossible. Before human carcinogenic potential from TCDD can be determined, long-term epidemiologic studies in humans are necessary (Poindexter, 1)

BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS

Much evidence suggests that TCDD does not damage DNA directly through the formation of DNA adducts. Mechanisms have been proposed that support the possibility that TCDD might be indirectly genotoxic, either through the induction of CYP1 enzymes capable of producing oxidative stress or by altering the DNA-damaging potential of some endogenous compounds, including estrogens. Many of these pathways are involved in cell proliferation and differentiation and are consistent with the generally accepted conclusion that TCDD acts as a "tumor promoter" in a multistage fashion (EPA, 000).

There is a scientific consensus that most, if not all, of the biochemical and toxic effects of TCDD require an initial interaction with its receptor, the aryl hydrocarbon (Ah) receptor. The properties of the Ah receptor (AhR) and the mechanisms whereby this receptor regulates gene expression are only beginning to be understood. However, formation of the AhR-TCDD complex is only the first of many steps involved in the production of a biochemical and toxic effect (EPA, 000).

In addition, there have been numerous reports on TCDD-induced modifications of growth factor signaling pathways and cytokines in experimental animals and cell systems. Some of the altered systems include those for epidermal growth factor, transforming growth factor alpha, estrogen, glucocorticoids, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 1-beta, plasminogen inactivating factor-, and gastrin (EPA, 000).

Several recent toxicological studies have begun to detail the molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of cancer in animals. In one study, TCDD induced CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 in hormone-independent prostate cancer cell lines, suggesting that CYP induction should be considered in patients with advanced prostate cancer (Schaufler, Haslmayer, Jager, Pec, & Thalhammer, 00). The results of another study showed the suitability of an explant culture system for examining the inducibility of human pulmonary CYP1A1 and CYP1A (Wei, Caccavale, Weyand, Chen, & Iba, 00) Andreasen, et al., identified a critical residue in AHR proteins that has an important impact on transactivation, enhancer site recognition, and regulation (Andreasen, Tanguay, Peterson, & Heideman, 00). Finally, Wang and Hankinson described the functional involvement of the brahma/SWI-related gene 1 protein in cytochrome P4501A1 transcription mediated by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor complex and implicated the importance of ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling activity on inducible gene expression mediated by AHR/ARNT (Wang & Hankinson, 00).

CONCLUSION

In 14, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released a reassessment of the risks associated with exposure to dioxin and reported a ten-fold increase in the risk of cancer. The announcement initiated much controversy and received much media attention. In light of what I have discussed in this paper, however, the announcement seems very reasonable. The fields of public health science and risk assessment are dynamic and continue to evolve. As scientists acquire more information regarding the biological mechanisms underlying dioxin-associated diseases, they are better able to assess the risks associated with those diseases.

Aside from a few incidences of acute physiological effects, dioxin has not been proven to cause disease in humans. Yet, the wealth of information regarding disease in animals associated with exposure to dioxin is conclusive and undeniable. The fact that scientists have yet to diagnose these effects in humans is probably a reflection of their lack of knowledge of the biological mechanisms underpinning dioxin-related disease.

The common thread linking most, if not all, diseases associated with dioxin in animals is the Ah receptor. Dioxin binds to the Ah receptor and this may trigger subsequent disruption to DNA integrity, hormone balance, cell signaling pathways, and/or cell metabolism, resulting in a variety of effects. Further research should attempt to elucidate the molecular mechanisms associated with the chain of events following dioxin-receptor binding, in order to better understand how dioxin contributes to specific diseases.

REFERENCES

Andreasen EA, Tanguay RL, Peterson RE, Heideman W. (00). Identification of a critical amino acid in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. The journal of biological chemistry, 77 (15), 110-8

Burton JE, Michalek JE, Rahe AJ. (18). Serum dioxin, chloracne, and acne in veterans of Operation Ranch Hand. Archives of Environmental Health, 5 (), 1 (6)

Cranmer M, Louie S, Kennedy RH, Kern PA, Fonseca VA. (000). Exposure to ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is associated with hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance. Diabetes, 4 (5), A6

Dearstyne EA, Kerkvliet NI. (00). Mechanism of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)-induced decrease in anti-CD-activated CD4(+) T cells the roles of apoptosis, Fas, and TNF (16). Toxicology, 170(1-), 1-51

Gregoraszczuk EL. (00). Dioxin exposure and porcine reproductive hormonal activity.

Cad Saude Publica, 18 (), 45-6

Johansen EB, Aase H, Meyer A, Sagvolden T. (00). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviour explained by dysfunctioning reinforcement and extinction processes. Behavioural Brain Research, 10 (1-), 7-45

Kern PA, Fishman RB, Song W, Brown AD, Fonseca V. (00). The effect of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on oxidative enzymes in adipocytes and liver. Toxicology, 171(-), 117-5

Kern PA, Dicker-Brown A, Said ST, Kennedy R, Fonseca VA. (00). The stimulation of tumor necrosis factor and inhibition of glucose transport and lipoprotein lipase in adipose cells by ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Metabolism, 51 (1), 65-8

Latchoumycandane C, Chitra C, Mathur P. (00). Induction of oxidative stress in rat epididymal sperm after exposure to ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo- p-dioxin. Archives of toxicology, 76 (), 11-8

Laupeze B, Amiot L, Sparfel L, Le Ferrec E, Fauchet R, Fardel O. (00). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons affect functional differentiation and maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Journal of Immunology, 168 (6), 65-8

Nayyar T, Zawia NH, Hood DB. (00). Transplacental effects of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on the temporal modulation of Sp1 DNA binding in the developing cerebral cortex and cerebellum. Experimental Toxicological Pathology, 5 (6), 461-8

Nohara K, Fujimaki H, Tsukumo SI, Inouye K, Sone H, Tohyama C. (00). Effects of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on T cell-derived cytokine production in ovalbumin (OVA)-immunized C57Bl/6 mice. Toxicology Letters, 1 (1-), 1-11

Park JH, Lee SW. (00). Up-regulated expression of genes encoding Hrk and IL-R beta subunit by TCDD in vivo and in vitro. Toxicology Letters, 1 (1-), 1-11

Poindexter P. (1). Dioxin toxicity. American Family Physician, 47 (4), 855 (7)

Rier SE. (00). The potential role of exposure to environmental toxicants in the pathophysiology of endometriosis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 55, 01-1; discussion 0-, 6-406

Schaufler K, Haslmayer P, Jager W, Pec M, Thalhammer T. (00). The environmental toxin ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin induces cytochrome P450 activity in high passage PC and DU 145 human prostate cancer cell lines. International journal of molecular medicine, (4), 411-6

Senft AP, Dalton TP, Nebert DW, Genter MB, Hutchinson RJ, Shertzer HG. (00). Dioxin increases reactive oxygen production in mouse liver mitochondria. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 178(1), 15-1

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (000). NCEA web page-Exposure and human health reassessment of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and related compounds. Retrieved April , 00, from http//www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/dioxin

Vreugdenhil HJ, Lanting CI, Mulder PG, Boersma ER, Weisglas-Kuperus N. (00). Effects of prenatal PCB and dioxin background exposure on cognitive and motor abilities in Dutch children at school age. The Journal of pediatrics, 140 (1), 48-56

Wang S, Hankinson O. (00). Functional Involvement of the Brahma/SWI-related Gene 1 Protein in Cytochrome P4501A1 Transcription Mediated by the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Complex. The journal of biological chemistry, 77 (14) 1181-7

Wei C, Caccavale RJ, Weyand EH, Chen S, Iba MM. (00). Induction of CYP1A1 and CYP1A expressions by prototypic and atypical inducers in the human lung. Cancer letters, 178 (1), 5-6

Williams RM. (April, 001). Dioxin a universal toxinPart 1. Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, 158

Williams RM. (May, 001). Dioxin a universal toxinPart . Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, 14

Zareba G, Hojo R, Zareba KM, Watanabe C, Markowski VP, Baggs RB, Weiss B. (00). Sexually dimorphic alterations of brain cortical dominance in rats prenatally exposed to TCDD. Journal of applied toxicology, (), 1-7

REFERENCES

Andreasen EA, Tanguay RL, Peterson RE, Heideman W. (00). Identification of a critical amino acid in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. The journal of biological chemistry, 77 (15), 110-8

Burton JE, Michalek JE, Rahe AJ. (18). Serum dioxin, chloracne, and acne in veterans of Operation Ranch Hand. Archives of Environmental Health, 5 (), 1 (6)

Cranmer M, Louie S, Kennedy RH, Kern PA, Fonseca VA. (000). Exposure to ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is associated with hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance. Diabetes, 4 (5), A6

Dearstyne EA, Kerkvliet NI. (00). Mechanism of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)-induced decrease in anti-CD-activated CD4(+) T cells the roles of apoptosis, Fas, and TNF (16). Toxicology, 170(1-), 1-51

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (000). EPA home page=Exposure and human health reassessment of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and related compounds. Retrieved April , 00, from http//www.epa.gov/ncea pdfs/dioxin

Gregoraszczuk EL. (00). Dioxin exposure and porcine reproductive hormonal activity.

Cad Saude Publica, 18 (), 45-6

Johansen EB, Aase H, Meyer A, Sagvolden T. (00). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviour explained by dysfunctioning reinforcement and extinction processes. Behavioural Brain Research, 10 (1-), 7-45

Kern PA, Fishman RB, Song W, Brown AD, Fonseca V. (00). The effect of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on oxidative enzymes in adipocytes and liver. Toxicology, 171(-), 117-5

Kern PA, Dicker-Brown A, Said ST, Kennedy R, Fonseca VA. (00). The stimulation of tumor necrosis factor and inhibition of glucose transport and lipoprotein lipase in adipose cells by ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Metabolism, 51 (1), 65-8

Latchoumycandane C, Chitra C, Mathur P. (00). Induction of oxidative stress in rat epididymal sperm after exposure to ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo- p-dioxin. Archives of toxicology, 76 (), 11-8

Laupeze B, Amiot L, Sparfel L, Le Ferrec E, Fauchet R, Fardel O. (00). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons affect functional differentiation and maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Journal of Immunology, 168 (6), 65-8

Nayyar T, Zawia NH, Hood DB. (00). Transplacental effects of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on the temporal modulation of Sp1 DNA binding in the developing cerebral cortex and cerebellum. Experimental Toxicological Pathology, 5 (6), 461-8

Nohara K, Fujimaki H, Tsukumo SI, Inouye K, Sone H, Tohyama C. (00). Effects of ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on T cell-derived cytokine production in ovalbumin (OVA)-immunized C57Bl/6 mice. Toxicology Letters, 1 (1-), 1-11

Park JH, Lee SW. (00). Up-regulated expression of genes encoding Hrk and IL-R beta subunit by TCDD in vivo and in vitro. Toxicology Letters, 1 (1-), 1-11

Poindexter P. (1). Dioxin toxicity. American Family Physician, 47 (4), 855 (7)

Rier SE. (00). The potential role of exposure to environmental toxicants in the pathophysiology of endometriosis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 55, 01-1; discussion 0-, 6-406

Schaufler K, Haslmayer P, Jager W, Pec M, Thalhammer T. (00). The environmental toxin ,,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin induces cytochrome P450 activity in high passage PC and DU 145 human prostate cancer cell lines. International journal of molecular medicine, (4), 411-6

Senft AP, Dalton TP, Nebert DW, Genter MB, Hutchinson RJ, Shertzer HG. (00). Dioxin increases reactive oxygen production in mouse liver mitochondria. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 178(1), 15-1

Vreugdenhil HJ, Lanting CI, Mulder PG, Boersma ER, Weisglas-Kuperus N. (00). Effects of prenatal PCB and dioxin background exposure on cognitive and motor abilities in Dutch children at school age. The Journal of pediatrics, 140 (1), 48-56

Wang S, Hankinson O. (00). Functional Involvement of the Brahma/SWI-related Gene 1 Protein in Cytochrome P4501A1 Transcription Mediated by the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Complex. The journal of biological chemistry, 77 (14) 1181-7

Wei C, Caccavale RJ, Weyand EH, Chen S, Iba MM. (00). Induction of CYP1A1 and CYP1A expressions by prototypic and atypical inducers in the human lung. Cancer letters, 178 (1), 5-6

Williams RM. (April, 001). Dioxin a universal toxinPart 1. Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, 158

Williams RM. (May, 001). Dioxin a universal toxinPart . Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, 14

Zareba G, Hojo R, Zareba KM, Watanabe C, Markowski VP, Baggs RB, Weiss B. (00). Sexually dimorphic alterations of brain cortical dominance in rats prenatally exposed to TCDD. Journal of applied toxicology, (), 1-7

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Sociological Paradigms

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According to the text, by John Macionis entitled "Sociology" a theoretical paradigm is defined as "a basic image of society that guides thinking and research". Each of the three paradigms is a different approach to sociology. The purpose of this paper is to define and explain the three different Theoretical Paradigms of Sociology written in this chapter.

The first paradigm is the structural-functional paradigm. The text defines this paradigm as "a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability". The first paradigm deals both with social structure and social function and the goal of having a stable and orderly society. The structural-functional paradigm guides us to look at the structure and the function of the social world around us.

Social Structure refers to a normal pattern of behavior. This can include the way we respond to our family, work environment, or school setting. Unfortunately, there are some functions of social structure that are largely unrecognized and unintended. This type of structure gives us the ability to form and develop a shape to our lives. This consists of home life, our jobs and, even in our everyday life.

Social Function refers to the different functions of society. The end result is to function in a way that continues to keep society ongoing. The functional part of our social world keeps our society in existence. Our social world is what keeps our society in existence. Our society could be compared to the food chain. The food chain begins with the smaller animals eating bugs and plants. Then larger animals eat all the smaller animals. The larger animals are then be eaten by human beings. These animals work independently to survive, which allows the food chain to be successful and functional. The social world all works together just as we see it working through the food chain, both independently and collectively.

An illustration for the structural-functional paradigm would be an assembly line in a factory. This, in large, seems very complex and complicated, but, yet when it is broken down it is easier to understand. Each part of the assembly line has its own job or place in the line. Without one part being completed in the correct order the item(s) being prepared would not be completed.

The second paradigm is the social-conflict paradigm. The text defines this paradigm as "a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change". This paradigm compares different inequalities in life, ranging from rich vs. poor, man vs. woman, white vs. black, and so forth.

Social-conflict paradigm looks at the ongoing conflict between different categories. The people who are better off financially tend to protect themselves and the things they have access to. On the other hand, those who may be a little less fortunate try to obtain more for their families.

In today society we see social-conflict everywhere. It can be seen at school, work, and at many different department stores. It is not objective and therefore has little scientific significance. It shows us the inequalities and conflicts between different societies within our community.

Furthermore, this paradigm takes into account the differing factors such as age, gender, race and how they affect the distribution of social level, money and power. An example of this would be comparing people who are slightly overweight, elderly, or a young energetic male for a job position. Which one would you want to work for you?

Is this social-conflict paradigm identifying racism and inequalities? By its name and definition, it does identify conflicts. The above conflicts are very prevalent in our society today. By recognizing conflicts and correcting inequalities maybe we can begin to look at our society like the third paradigm, symbolic-interaction.

The third and last paradigm is the symbolic-interaction paradigm. The text defines this paradigm as "a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals". The symbolic-interaction paradigm can be broken down into a wide range view and a close up view of society and the interaction of people. The wide range view is noted as "macro-level orientation". This is an outlook on society at a distance, gaining aspect of the whole picture. An illustration of this would be how well football teams play and communicate with each other in order to win a game. This requires signaling to each other, watching others closely and listening to the coach. The close up view of society is known as the close up view of society is known as "micro-level orientation". This view looks at our world "through specific situations". An example of this view would be how each individual football player responds to the coach's commands and responds to each player on the team.

Our society is extremely complex and there seems to be a meaning to everything that happens in life. These "meanings" and our behaviors change through time. They change with each individual person. All of us attempt to see things alike, but everyone has different perceptions of life. Even though we all try to shape the reality that others perceive, we all will have a different opinion and definition of life as we see it.

Overall, the structural-functional paradigm, social-conflict paradigm, and the symbolic-interaction paradigm each help explain life in this strange world. Each of these paradigms answer different questions, guide us to understanding our society, and perceiving our world in a different light.

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Joint Application Design for Requirements Elicitation

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Abstract

There are several traditional methods of requirements elicitation and business rule capture utilized by organizations when embarking on systems development projects. Although many technical based requirements can be determined through research of available technology, standards organizations, or existing systems, most functional requirements and business processes can only be learned through interaction with the intended end users of the system under development. Surveys, interviews and questionnaires can be effective, but are often time consuming methods of requirements gathering, and often miss the big picture. Using these methods often do not allow for group discussion, consensus and validation of requirements. In recent years, a more common approach is the use of Joint Application Design (JAD). The JAD method allows for collaboration of a pre-selected population of end users, managers, and analysts with the intent of reaching an accurate and timely consensus on system requirements and business rules. This paper will focus on both advantages and pitfalls of using JAD for software development projects, and provide case studies and recommendations. The overall findings conclude that JAD is an efficient, necessary method of requirements elicitation for most systems projects.

Table of Contents

Order College Papers on Joint Application Design for Requirements Elicitation

Introduction4

Discussion7

JAD Session Participants7

Preparing for JAD Sessions11

Conducting JAD Sessions1

Post JAD Session Activities16

Case Study The Boeing Company16

Lessons Learned0

Conclusion1

References

Joint Application Design for Requirements Elicitation

Introduction

One of the traditional approaches to the requirements phase for systems projects is to assemble a systems analysis team responsible for conducting individual or small group interviews, and create, distribute and interpret questionnaires and surveys. Depending on the magnitude of the project, this often involves time and cost consuming travel to acquire input from the right people. Once the interview phase is complete, the analysis team typically reassembles to hash out the various user viewpoints, and coordinate back and forth with individual users to resolve perceived discrepancies. In the next step, the analysts produce a systems requirements document, usually consisting of various "shall" statements gathered during the interview process. In my experience as a systems analyst, it is not uncommon for these initial documents to be readily accepted by the end users, only to discover significant flaws down the line.

A common downfall with the traditional methodology described above often occurs during the system design phase. Analysts are rarely given enough time to learn the user's functions adequately enough to accomplish their task. After the requirements document has been accepted, analysts will often design what they believe is the user's overall perception of the system, with little or no collaboration with them. Analysts will often use their own creativity to develop screen layouts, various reports, and processing. However, when the system design document is released, the analysis team is often faced with the rude awakening that they have not produced what the end users really want. When this occurs, projects often fall behind schedule, and the entire requirements elicitation process needs to be revisited, often with grueling, rushed, closed-door meetings with users in an attempt to recover and get it right.

In contrast, Joint Application Design allows the appropriate setting to gather all key players together early in the process, and on a continual basis as necessary. There may be more time up-front needed for training and preparation of JAD sessions, which will be discussed in detail in a subsequent section, but the end result usually pays off by allowing the analysts to design the system right the first time.

JAD is defined as "a process whereby highly structured group meetings or miniretreats involving system users, system owners, and analysts occur in a single room for an extended time" (Whitten, 18, p. 66). It is a method of collaboration among system users, technical staff, managers, and systems analysts that can be useful throughout several phases of the systems development lifecycle. Originally developed by IBM in 177, it has gone through several iterations, and currently applies across industry, application, and hardware boundaries (August, 11).

The overall intent of JAD sessions is to accomplish the front-end tasks of the systems development lifecycle. These include defining objectives, obtaining detailed system requirements, and external design (screens, data elements, reports, processing). The sessions also provide an appropriate forum to document system business rules. A business rule is defined as an established practice of an organization indirectly related to particular functions of the system. For example, a user of a medical information system attempting to log into a patient's medical record may be denied access if an incorrect password is entered more than two times consecutively.

Initially, this paper will focus on the methods for selecting the appropriate mix of participants for JAD sessions based on subject area and objectives. This involves the determination of the number of technical and functional domain experts and the role of the systems analysts and support staff. An in-depth discussion of facilitation support, techniques and qualifications will also be included.

Next, the paper will focus on planning and conducting JAD sessions. This will include orientation of the analysis staff, preparing draft analysis products for JAD session discussion points, logistics considerations, orientation of end users (otherwise known as subject matter experts), the use of CASE tools, and wrap-up procedures. Throughout this discussion, examples of real-world JAD experiences will be incorporated to point out success stories and lessons learned.

The paper will also provide discussion on the team-building aspects of JAD, and how established customer-based workgroups facilitate consensus and ownership of requirements. This discussion will lead directly to the advantages of JAD for the more advanced stages of the systems development lifecycle. Requirements are a moving target, and naturally evolve over time. An established workgroup can help the systems analyst manage these requirements as systems projects move into the design phase. Additionally, the JAD members can provide ongoing validation of analysis and design products as they evolve throughout the systems development lifecycle.

Another section of this paper provides a case study of how the Boeing Company used the JAD philosophy during the development of the 777 aircraft in the 10s. Although this example is a slightly different twist on the JAD methodology, the techniques used by the organization are of relevance.

Finally, the paper will summarize the advantages and pitfalls of using JAD, and provide guidelines for deciding when to incorporate JAD as a method of requirements elicitation. The summary will also include detailed recommendations for using JAD, and how this methodology can be most effective throughout multiple phases of project analysis and design.

Discussion

JAD Session Participants

Critical to the success of JAD sessions is the appropriate selection of participants. This section provides an explanation of the types of people who should be included, and what roles they play. Included are the project sponsor, users and managers, systems analysts, scribes, observers, and a facilitator.

During the initial conception and proposal stages of system projects, there are usually one or more participants who stand out as sponsors, or chief proponents. If the project is internal to an organization, the sponsor is likely a high level manager. If the organization is acting on a consultant basis, then the sponsor is likely a high ranking client representative. These individuals are often directly responsible for approval of the project, releasing the necessary funding, and have a stake in its success. The sponsor is also the primary decision-maker in terms of project direction, and delegating lower level issues to other project team members for resolution. In addition, the sponsor is accountable to appointing the appropriate end users to participate in project JAD sessions. According to Jeffrey L. Whitten in Systems Analysis and Design Methods, "The role of the sponsor is to give full support to the systems project by encouraging designated users to willingly and actively participate in the JAD session(s)" (Whitten, 18, p. 66).

It is also a common practice for the project sponsor to kick off JAD sessions by presenting an overview of the project. In my experience, I have found that these opening remarks can have a crucial role in the success of the JAD session. If the sponsor displays enthusiasm for the project, focuses on the benefits the users will realize upon it's successful completion, and explains the importance of their role in the process, then the end-user participants will be more likely to take the session seriously.

Another obvious role in JAD sessions is that of the end-users, or subject matter experts. It is crucial that the appropriate mix of users possessing the right skill sets be included on the participant roster. Careful consideration must be given to the time line for notifying users of their participation, and what the expectations are with regard to time commitment. Hopefully, this approach will minimize the disruption of the workflow in their respective departments, and will allow managers time to make staffing adjustments during the JAD session. The project sponsor, or individual responsible for choosing user participants, must be careful to ensure that each person selected for the session has the business knowledge to provide a valuable contribution. This knowledge may include expertise on the organization's legacy system, business processes, and legislative mandates that may influence the system design.

The next participant type in JAD sessions is that of the Systems Analyst. Typically two to three analysts that have been assigned to work on the project will participate in the sessions. Prior to the JAD sessions, these analysts are responsible for researching the project background, familiarizing themselves with the objectives of the sessions, and gaining an understanding of the current direction of the project. Their primary role in the sessions is to listen and capture requirements and business rules articulated by the user participants. Although most JAD sessions are led by a professional facilitator, whose role will be discussed later in this section, the systems analysts often assist in guiding discussions. The analysts are usually more familiar with the subject area, and are responsible for capturing the appropriate data, and ultimately responsible for producing the JAD output documents (August, 11).

The scribe is another important member of the JAD session. His or her responsibility is to record meticulous notes during the session. This often includes making on-line changes to analysis documents that are discussed during the session. The scribe must also be a proficient user of CASE tools used for analysis. I have found that one of the pitfalls of JAD sessions is that the importance of this role is often underestimated. Many JAD planners make the mistake of assigning the role of scribe to clerical assistants who do not have a background with the project. If the subject area being discussed is complex in nature, it is impossible for these scribes to understand what, and how much information to capture. It is therefore highly recommended that an analyst assigned to the project perform the duties of the scribe.

The next significant role in JAD sessions is that of the facilitator. The larger the session, the more crucial the role of the facilitator becomes. A professionally trained facilitator brings organization and structure to the sessions, and is responsible for getting discussions started, obtaining full participation, keeping discussions within scope and on the topic, and resolving "people" issues.

Inevitably, in many JAD sessions, the group dynamics will include many personality types. Some participants will be outspoken, opinionated, and in some cases may come across as condescending to others, while other participants may be reserved and reluctant to share ideas. One function of the facilitator is to ensure that everyone has an equal opportunity to contribute. For this reason, it is often suggested that the facilitator should be independent from the organization, hired as an outside consultant. This allows the facilitator to exercise his or her authority among the group and will less likely be intimidated by rank and seniority among the participants. More discussion on diagnosing and solving people issues is included in a subsequent section of this paper.

A few other minor roles in JAD sessions are also worth mentioning. Often, observers are invited to attend entire are partial sessions. These are individuals who may have an indirect stake in the project and are interested in the discussion. Prior to the session, they are usually directed by the facilitator, or sponsor that their input into the session should be minimal, and they should not attempt to influence any of the discussions. In just about every JAD session I have participated in, this has never worked. Observers almost always lose sight of their place, and take on the role of the end-user participants. Hopefully, a skilled facilitator will manage these situations when they arise.

In addition to observers, technical staff members and functional specialists may be invited to attend JAD sessions. According to Judy August, author of Joint Application Design, "The information systems representative provides guidance and advice within the JAD contest. He or she makes suggestions and provides information about the users' opportunities and trade-offs" (August, 11, p. 41). In other words, users may be unaware of resources and technology available to them, and may tend to create requirements that are more restrictive than necessary. The information systems representative can provide different design or implementation options. The Specialist, on the other hand, is someone who specializes in a discrete area of functionality who may be called in to a session for consultation when that topic is being discussed. He or she may be able to provide insight that the dedicated user participants cannot. For example, a specialist might be someone who has extensive experience with a particular report or inquiry screen, but in the scheme of the entire project, it may not be justified for him or her to attend the entire JAD session (August, 11).

Preparing for JAD Sessions

The primary tasks to preparing for JAD sessions include selecting participants, selecting a location, researching project background, developing draft analysis documents to use for discussion points, training support staff on JAD techniques and methods, and developing and distributing orientation materials to participants. Developing a realistic schedule to complete these tasks is also imperative. An in depth discussion of these tasks follows.

As previously mentioned, sponsor is usually involved in selecting the participants. Once the objectives, scope and areas of functionality to be covered have been defined, the sponsor is responsible for deciding which individuals are most qualified to participate in the JAD session. Rarely will the sponsor handpick each user participant, especially if the JAD session involves several departments and system functions. In many cases the sponsor will delegate that responsibility to individual department managers. It is also noteworthy to mention that end-user participants should be notified as soon as possible once the JAD session has been scheduled. This allows time to arrange for their absence in the workplace, and also affords the opportunity for them to assist the project systems analysts who are busy gathering background information prior to the session.

"Although the number of participants will vary considerably, depending on the size and nature of the system being designed, no more than 15 people should be in the session room at the same time. The best of session leaders cannot possibly manage more than 15 participants effectively" (August, 1, p. 7). Therefore, accounting for the facilitator and other support staff, end-user participants should be held to a maximum of 10-1 people.

Next, there are several factors to consider when selecting a location for JAD sessions, and planning other logistics. Many project managers are tempted to conduct JAD sessions in an in-house conference room, in close proximity to the work areas of many of the participants. The obvious advantage is cost savings. The major drawback is that participants may be interrupted by the demands of their daily routines and may be easily distracted by phone calls or other duties. Therefore, most of the literature on this topic commonly recommends holding JAD sessions off-site at either a hotel or conference facility. These facilities have experienced staff to set up meeting rooms, provide catering, data lines, audio-visual equipment, and business services. "By holding the JAD session at an off-site location, the attendees can concentrate on the issues and activities related to the JAD session and avoid interruptions and distractions that would occur at their regular workplace. Regardless of the location of the JAD session, all attendees should be required to attend and be prohibited from returning to their regular workplace" (Whitten, 18, p. 665).

Since JAD sessions involve systems requirement capture, they usually occur early in the systems development lifecycle. Typically, soon after a project is funded, the initial JAD session is scheduled, and the systems analysts assigned to the project begin the background research to prepare for the session. This usually includes combing through documentation from legacy systems, process and procedure documents, and informal interviews with key end-users. It may also include discussions with the architecture and implementation teams.

Once the initial background is complete, the systems analysts will often begin to draft analysis products that can be used as discussion points during the JAD sessions. These products may include data flow diagrams depicting the current and proposed system processing, shell use cases which outline event by event, the interactions between the user and the system, and sample screen designs. As previously stated, the purpose of these initial set of analysis products is to generate ideas and stimulate discussion during the JAD session. The expectation is that many of the products will require significant changes after the session, and some may be discarded all together.

During the few weeks prior to the JAD session, orientation of all support staff members usually occurs. The facilitator is often a key player in this process. He or she explains the format, timeline, ground rules, and outlines the role of each support member. The analysts, scribes, and technical staff should be given clear direction regarding their responsibilities.

The final preparation task is the orientation of the end-user participants. Frequently, the facilitator and systems analysts will work together to produce an orientation package to be distributed to participants within a week of the JAD session. This package will typically include a synopsis of project background material, scope and objectives, the JAD session agenda outlining the issues to be discussed and the amount of time allotted to each item, definition of terms, sample analysis products, logistic information, and a point of contact list. Another helpful tactic is to hold a teleconference with all participants a few days prior to communicate the expectations for the session, to address any concerns, and to clear up any points of confusion.

Conducting JAD Sessions

At the opening of JAD sessions, the facilitator will introduce the participants and support staff, and typically reviews orientation material, including the agenda, objectives, and an explanation of what participants can expect to gain from the session. Immediately following, the project sponsor will often give a presentation intended to generate enthusiasm among the participants. The sponsor should focus on benefits of the project, how the new system will directly benefit the end-users, and how the JAD session is crucial to the requirements gathering process. The presentation should also reiterate the importance of cooperation and maximum participation.

After all introductory remarks, opening briefings, and background information have been explained, the facilitator will begin discussions following the outlined agenda. "To successfully conduct the session, the leader should follow the following guidelines

•Do not unreasonably deviate from the agenda.

•Stay on schedule (agenda topics are allotted specific time).

•Ensure that the scribe is able to take notes (this may mean having the users and managers restate their points more slowly or clearly).

•Avoid the use of technical jargon.

•Apply conflict resolution skills.

•Allow for ample breaks.

•Encourage group consensus.

•Encourage user and management participation without allowing individuals to dominate the session.

•Make sure that attendees abide by the established ground rules for the session" (Whitten, 18, p. 667).

As mentioned earlier, personality issues will undoubtedly surface during many JAD sessions. Whether these issues are driven by ego sensitivity, political motivation, ulterior motive, or personality clash with another participant, it is the role of the facilitator to diagnose the problem and take appropriate action. In her book Joint Application Design, Judy August offers several conflict resolution techniques for the facilitator. The first is the head-on approach of confronting the individual in an attempt to resolve the situation. When this is approach is not appropriate or threatens make matters worse, August offers other nonverbal, humorous and indirect approaches (August, 11).

Another way to manage people issues and maximize the level of contribution among the session participants is by employing the GroupWare collaboration tool. GroupWare enables each participant to anonymously enter ideas into their own dedicated laptop computer throughout the session. This encourages participation by those who would otherwise keep quiet during discussion. It also alleviates the fear of repercussions for expressing ideas that may be unpopular among upper management. This concept is especially applicable in the military environment. Several JAD sessions I have participated in were conducted for U.S. Department of Defense projects. The user participants often included a wide range of ranks within the military. Because of the military culture and emphasis on rank, it was difficult to realize equal participation among the participants during open discussion sessions. In this case, the GroupWare tool allowed us to overcome this obstacle. The tool also facilitates making priority lists for requirements and other issues, and all information recorded in GroupWare can be used to supplement the meeting notes.

As mentioned in the previous section, draft analysis products such as data flow diagrams, process level use cases, and sample screen designs can be presented to the participants during the session to stimulate discussion and elicit feedback. Discussions about process and interaction with the system will inevitably elicit requirements and draw out business rules. Once again, it is the responsibility of the systems analysts and scribes to capture all pertinent information in a logical, practical format.

The final tasking of a JAD session should be an evaluation of the session. Each participant should be required to fill out a questionnaire to determine what went well, what didn't, improvement suggestions, and effectiveness of discussion points and presentations. Interpretation of these questionnaires can help the analysts develop a lessons learned list to incorporate into future sessions.

Post JAD Session Activities

Immediately following a JAD session, the systems analysts, should organize and document all meeting notes from all sources, format all requirements and business rules captured, and distribute to participants for comment and acceptance. Additionally, the draft analysis products presented during the sessions must be updated to reflect user input. The more long-range outcome of the JAD session may be to produce a Systems Requirements Specifications document that will incorporate all of the information gathered during the session. The end-user participants may be called upon for follow-up teleconferences, or even subsequent JAD sessions for further clarification.

Case Study The Boeing Company

In the early 10s, the Boeing Company, builder of commercial airliners since 17, was facing fierce competition from Airbus and McDonnell Douglas in the 00-50 seat passenger airplane market. Up to this point, Boeing's development process was antiquated, cumbersome, and inefficient, creating production delays, increased cost, and spawning a huge bureaucracy. When the decision was made to develop the 777 aircraft to compete with the other aircraft builders, the leaders at Boeing implemented a new "Design-Build" process to meet the aggressive project schedule. Although this case study does not follow all of the traditional JAD elements discussed in the previous sections of this paper, it is remarkable how the same methodology can be applied across industries. In this case study, the design is for an airplane, rather than a systems application. The design-build process developed by Boeing incorporates JADtype sessions throughout as a method to capture requirements, and the similarity to traditional JAD sessions is notably relevant.

From the beginning of the design phases of the 777, the Boeing management had the foresight to learn from the past. During production of previous Boeing aircraft, one of the major problems causing increased cost and schedule delays was a lack of communication between different divisions within Boeing. For example, one group of engineers would draft designs for the aircraft's wings, while another would draft the design for the main fuselage. Then, during the manufacture process, the two components wouldn't exactly fit or wouldn't be 100 percent compatible, so all engineers were required to return to the drawing board. This realization was what led Boeing management to develop design-build teams (DBTs), which incorporated JAD sessions throughout the design effort.

Each team was responsible for a particular element and included personnel from all disciplines design, manufacturing, operations, procurement, customer support, as well as customer and supplier personnel. The typical team consisted of 15 members and met frequently in JAD sessions to monitor progress and discuss problems.

From the beginning, a belief existed that a critical element of design was to get input from the customer into the design process, and to get the engineers into direct contact with airline personnel. One of the goals was to find out directly from the gate mechanics the information they needed to efficiently service the plane. Teams were formed, and JAD sessions were conducted to communicate directly with airline mechanics and service personnel and get their point of view on the designs.

The initial focus of the DBTs and JAD sessions was to maximize knowledge among the many Boeing engineers. The best way to accomplish this was to combine airline customer services and manufacturers along with engineers. These teams would work in an atmosphere that promoted listening to each other, sharing problems, setting aside self-interests and getting things right the first time. This was of particular importance considering Boeing had committed to a 48-month project duration, with the delivery of the first 777 due to United Airlines in May 15. The normal production duration for a new Boeing plane was 60 months from initial design to rollout.

JAD sessions were scheduled according to the timeline of each DBT. The DBTs were formed by dividing up areas of responsibility in relationship to parts of the plane, such as wings, empennage (tail section), fuselage, and so on. Each of these areas was broken down into sub-areas, and the sub-areas could be broken down even further. One example of a detailed breakdown of DBTs can be tied to the teams responsible for the design and manufacture of the plane's wing. The highest level DBT was the primary Wing DBT. The next level down was divided into the Leading Edge DBT and the Trailing Edge DBT. On the next level, the Trailing Edge DBT was divided into seven additional DBTs as follows Flap Supports, Inboard Flap, Outboard Flap, Outboard Fixed Wing, Flaperon, Aileron, and Inboard Fixed Wing. Each of these teams typically had between 10 and 0 members (Sabbagh, 16).

To keep the lines of communication flowing continuously, JAD sessions occurred frequently throughout the design process. Each session was assigned a leader who would facilitate the meetings, and certain guidelines were enforced. There were set time limits for each speaker, detailed notes and action items were documented, and a responsible party was assigned to each action. In addition, a section of each session was devoted to issue resolution. At this point, certain issues were identified that required the participants to consider and come to a decision. Finally, issues were identified that required input from a higher level of management.

As previously mentioned, airline personnel played a key role in the JAD sessions. In this case study, they are analogous to the end-user participants in traditional JAD sessions described earlier. During the initial sessions, United Airlines offered the most input and feedback. United also committed to purchasing 4 of the 777s even before Boeing made the final decision to build the plane. For this reason, United had the largest stake in the project than any other airline. United, as well as certain members of the press touted the 777 as United's plane. Gordon McKinzie, a United engineer, was invited by Boeing to participate in several sessions. This proved to be a distinct advantage for United since McKinzie was allowed to identify potential problems before the plane was assembled and delivered, in addition to having the opportunity to influence requirements for the plane to suit the needs specific to United.

One potential disaster that was avoided as a result of McKinzie's participation in the JAD sessions referenced the location of the fueling panel. He determined that based on the height of the fuel stands used at United, they would have to hire refuelers that were at least eight feet tall to reach the fuel panels. United also consulted with other airlines, and they all agreed the panel was too high. Boeing immediately conceded this oversight and moved the panel to a reasonable height. Without airline participation in this particular situation, the repercussions of this design flaw could have been tremendous. McKinzie explained that he doesn't know what would have happened if the airplane was delivered and nobody could reach the fuel panel (Sabbagh, 16).

As a testament to the success of the DBTs and JAD methodology at Boeing, United Airlines took delivery of the first 777 on schedule in May 15. The plane included all the features the airline asked for when the 777 was merely on the drawing board during the initial JAD sessions. In addition, the 777 was the first aircraft to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration to fly transatlantic routes from the first day of operation. Needless to say, the leaders at United were pleased with the new plane that they helped to build, and they took pride in the understanding that their participation in the Boeing teams contributed to the overall success of the project.

Lessons Learned

The majority of this paper focuses on the positive aspects of incorporating JAD sessions during the requirements elicitation phase of systems projects. However, if the sessions are not orchestrated or tailored properly, the sessions can easily be doomed to failure. Throughout my past experience functioning as both facilitator and systems analyst in various JAD sessions, I have learned from mistakes, and have kept a running list of points to consider that may improve future sessions. Some of the items are listed below

•Brief the end-user participants on project background and JAD session methodology before the session, and communicate goals and objectives clearly.

•Identify and notify the participants of the session as early as possible, and select back-up participants to account for those who may drop out at the last minute.

•Insist on full participation, and discourage participants from being distracted by their normal daily tasks.

•Make sure analysts are prepared to lead discussions that may be too functional-specific for the facilitator.

•Prepare an agenda that includes carefully thought out discussion topics.

•Employ a scribe that has enough functional knowledge of the subject area to adequately capture notes and requirements.

Conclusion

Many organizations are finding that in order to stay competitive in a global economy, their systems projects must be run efficiently, on schedule, and must ultimately deliver what's been promised. The traditional approaches to requirements elicitation phase of projects involving individual interviews, questionnaires, and numerous hours of analysis and interpretation, are rapidly becoming outmoded. More and more companies are beginning to realize the advantages of JAD sessions and are incorporating them into their existing methodologies. "An effectively conducted JAD session offers the following benefits

•JAD actively involves users and management in the development project (encouraging them to take ownership of the project).

•JAD reduces the amount of time required to develop systems. This is achieved by replacing traditional, time-consuming one-on-one interviewing of each user and manager with group meetings. The group meetings allow for more easily obtaining consensus among the users and managers, as well as resolving conflicting information and requirements" (Whitten, 18, p. 667). If implemented properly, with an experienced and motivated staff, JAD sessions can offer many benefits.

In order to conduct successful JAD sessions, an organization must make the initial investment in time and resources. A significant amount of time, effort and cost is involved during the planning stages. Researching project background, developing preliminary analysis products, selecting and paying for a JAD session location, and committing time for participants away from their daily duties are all factors to consider. If sessions are well planned and executed, the benefit of getting the requirements articulated and documented right the first time, is undoubtedly well worth the initial investment. Many organizations simply cannot afford not to adopt JAD session methodology for complex systems projects.

References

August, J. (11). Joint Application Design, the Group Session Approach to System Design. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey Yourdon Press.

Chin, K. (15). A JAD Experience. Proceedings of the 15 ACM SIGCPR conference on Supporting teams, groups, and learning inside and outside the IS function reinventing IS, 5-6.

Niederman, F. (16). Acquiring Knowledge about Group Facilitation Research Proposition. Proceedings of the 16 conference on ACM SIGCPR/SIGMIS conference, 16, 58-67.

Sabbagh, K. (16). Twenty-First-Century Jet, the Making and Marketing of the Boeing 777. New York, NY Scribner.

Whitten, L., Bentley, L. (18). Systems Analysis and Design Methods. Fourth Edition. New York, NY McGraw-Hill.

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Black Boy Journal

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Richard's eyes open more wide towards discrimination, as he gets older. Hunger and a desire to complete his education, compels Richard to take odd jobs during and after the summer. But with every new job, Richard learns more about the attitude of the White people towards the blacks. Richard completes his education in school but the problems of

hunger and insecurity continue to haunt him.

Richard is unable to accept injustice, whether it is from his relatives or the white men. Whenever he hears about the unjustified crime committed by the whites on the Blacks, he gets infuriated. For example when he heard a white man killed his friend's brother because he suspected the Black boy of having an affair with a white prostitute Richard's heart rebels against such injustice. During the time, he holds jobs under racist white employers; he resents their cruel acts and words. And unconsciously he reacts to their attitude and makes them hate him. This results in his losing not one but many jobs. At this point I don't think Richard is happy and he is at his struggling point of his life. He struggles to find a job and support him and his family. Also Richard struggles to find his daily existence and He is unable to understand the basis of racial discrimination. Richard acts according to his conscience toward white people because he is still unable to understand racism and injustice.

One of the big themes through out this chapter was racial discrimination and minor theme was Richard's desire leading him to frustration. Richard is disgusted by the racial prejudice but remains a silent spectator for fear of punishment. "Nigger, ain't you learned no better sense'n that yet?" asked the man who hit me. " Ain't you learned to say sir to a white man yet?" (181). Richard is now personally experiencing racial discrimination. He finds it difficult to accept humiliation and abuses without protest but he learned that he cannot so anything about it and drives him angry. At the Optical Company in Jackson, his young colleagues, Pease, and Reynold get offended when Richard expresses a desire to learn the trade from them. They resent his attitude to compete with them. Richard resigns from the company in frustration. " I had hoped for a lot from this job," I said. " I'd wanted to go to school, to college…" (1). This passage shows his desire to reach his goal to get educated but his fear and anger makes him quit his job and Richard is very frustrated.

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I though I had lot of things learn from Richard. Being a very responsible person, hard working and most of all his great desire to reach his goal to be a writer. Most of the teenagers these days are lazy and not hard working people. Also, I learned that you cannot do things you always like but sometimes you have to learn how to take it in and be patient because after all that frustration Richard became a great writer.

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Religious intolerance

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The purpose of this essay is to inform the readers, which is my peer group, of the issue of religious intolerance.

I have decided to transmit this material through a combination of fact and personal experience.

I chose the topic because I had a personal experience in religious intolerance and wanted to find out more about the topic.

When I attended primary school in the public system, once a week there was a compulsory religion class for years -6 which lasted only around an hour. During this hour probably 8% of the students would stay in their normal classes and an Anglican teacher would come. They would mostly just play games and have fun during this time of 'religious education' as many of the students in the school had no set religion. The small minority of students including myself attended small group classes for the religions of either Judaism or for Catholics. I was a part of the Catholic group and in our class there were only students out of a school of 1000. During this one hour period we would learn prayers and bible stories e.t.c, all the things learnt in a religion class at the many Catholic primary and secondary schools we have across Australia. When I would return from these classes to my homeroom I found that during that recess the students would discuss the religion class and what fun they'd have, they would then turn to me and make unkind childish remarks about my religion and I found myself left out of many of their gamesand fun. I also observed the same attitudes were being used towards the Jewish minority, perhaps even more so then the Catholics because of their 'different' appearance.

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I found myself questioning my faith and promptly returned home after one of these religion classes with the news for my mother that I was no longer Catholic, I was now like all my friends who were and I would no longer be returning to the Catholic classes. Of course she was rather shocked at this and refused to speak to the teachers about changing my class, but she could not understand the playground taunts I was being forced to endure because of this simple difference of religion. The physical appearance of some students was also another factor the children enjoyed making fun of, those with darker colored skin were a favorite for them aswell, picking on those from Asian or African backgrounds.

Now that I am older and have a clearer view of what was happening in my primary school, I can see that the children were finding differences in people and discluding them because of those differences and/or different views had been opposed upon them at a young age about the way to treat those of different religions and/or races to yours.

Unfortunately, the schoolyard of my primary school and its petty problems with other religions is not where religious discrimination stops, not by far.

The Jewish people have been among the most persecuted religious group in history. During the middle ages most European countries took away their rights, expelled them completely or even executed them. These extreme measures were often taken out of resentment against their economic success, they were a very knowledgeable people and generally quite wealthy. Later, during the 1th and early 0th their contitions gradually improved and many countries gave Jews full rights.

Perhaps most of the world would agree that one of the most extreme conflicts based on religious hate was that of Hitler and the Jewish.

Before Hitler, the jews of Germany were considered citizens in every respect. They were to be found in all walks of life, especially in proffessions such as law, medicine, the Universities and civil service. Then came the terrible reverse.

Between 1 and 145 Hitlers Nazi party exterminated about 6 million Jews in specially built death or 'concentration camps'. Most of Germanys Jews were deliberately wiped out, along with millions of others throughout Europe.

Hitlers view was that humans could be subdivided into superior and inferior races. The superior race were the Aryans-pale skin, blonde hair, blue eyes 'beatiful'- confined largely to Northern Europe, especially Germany. 'Inferior races' were those of Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. The lowest form of humanity according to Hitler was the Jews. He blamed them for all of Germanys problems & misfortunes and rallied enough support from the struggling Germany in the midst of the depression to make it possible for him to attempt to create his 'perfect world', or at least a perfect Germany

Many people have views about other religions, some stronger than others. When a person with very extreme views is able to gain control over a large group of people it can have terrible circumstances.

Where the anti semetic views stemmed from no-one can be certain, but to blame a religious group for all the problems of a troubled country and basing your ideas largely on the fact the Jewish were generally quite well off because of the proffessions they tended to specialize in due to the fact they are a people very dedicated to learning, and that the reason Germany was struggling immensely was because the Jewish were taking all the money from the 'real' Germans is absoloutely absurd.

My simple experience as a child in Primary school, being teased in the playground is nothing compared to the pain and suffering of millions and millions of Jewish people not to mention the families of those killed, those who knew them and of course so many worldwide who feel such sorrow and pity. It affected so many people in so many ways-it's crazy to think one man can cause so much atrocity and make his mark in history forever.

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Cool dude

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